The DOI matches its Crossref record; 20 of the 20 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Maintenance of Foreign Language Vocabulary and the Spacing Effect
Abstract
In a 9-year longitudinal investigation, 4 subjects learned and relearned 300 English-foreign language word pairs. Either 13 or 26 relearning sessions were administered at intervals of 14, 28, or 56 days. Retention was tested for 1.2.3. or 5 years after training terminated. The longer intersession intervals slowed down acquisition slightly, but this disadvantage during training was offset by substantially higher retention. Thirteen retraining sessions spaced at 56 days yielded retention comparable to 26 sessions spaced at 14 days. The retention benefit due to additional sessions was independent of the benefit due to spacing, and both variables facilitated retention of words regardless of difficulty level and of the consistency of retrieval during training. The benefits of spaced retrieval practice to long-term maintenance of access to academic knowledge areas are discussed.
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In the citing paper
“Bahrick et al. (1993) reported that subjects required twice as many trials in the second study session in order to achieve criterion, as gap increased from 14 to 56 days.”
From Optimizing distributed practice (2009) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al. (1993)
In the citing paper
“Every study examined here with a retention interval longer than one month (Bahrick, 1979; Bahrick, et al., 1993; Bahrick & Phelps, 1987; Cepeda et al., 2005) demonstrated a benefit from distribution of learning across weeks or months, as opposed to learning across a one-day interval;”
From Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. (2006) · cites this paper as Bahrick, et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“These studies confounded number of relearning trials with ISI; that is, there was more relearning at longer ISIs.”
From Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. (2006) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“However, 56 days is actually a relatively short proportion of the extremely long retention intervals used in Bahrick et al.'s study, and it is this ratio that is probably most critical, as will emerge below.”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“The results showed that increasing the inter-study spacing out to 56 days improved performance (Figure 2).”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“Another issue in interpreting the Bahrick studies (Bahrick et al., 1993;Bahrick & Phelps, 1987) is the use of a fixed performance criterion.Given the forgetting that takes place during the gap between study sessions, this inevitably means that many more relearning trials will be necessary during most sessions at the longest gap (as compared to the shortest).”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
Citations
Cites
Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology
Ebbinghaus, H. (2013) · Annals of Neurosciences · doi:10.5214/ans.0972.7531.200408 · Cited by 2,827
Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00029.x · Cited by 1,582
Memory; a contribution to experimental psychology,
Ebbinghaus, H., Bussenius, C. E., & Ruger, H. A. (n.d.) · University of Michigan Library Repository · Cited by 1,281
Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory
Melton, A. W. (1963) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(63)80063-8 · Cited by 739
The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory
Melton, A. W. (1970) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(70)80107-4 · Cited by 527
Semantic memory content in permastore: Fifty years of memory for Spanish learned in school.
Bahrick, H. P. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.113.1.1 · Cited by 505
Self-citationComponent-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition
Glenberg, A. M. (1979) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197590 · Cited by 444
The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research.
Dempster, F. N. (1988) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.43.8.627 · Cited by 439
Intraserial repetition and coding processes in free recall
Madigan, S. A. (1969) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(69)80050-2 · Cited by 239
Retention of Spanish vocabulary over 8 years.
Bahrick, H. P., & Phelphs, E. (1987) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.2.344 · Cited by 228
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Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612453266 · Cited by 3,138
Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888
“The Bahrick studies (Bahrick, 1979; Bahrick et al., 1993; Bahrick & Phelps, 1987), which confounded amount of relearning and ISI, showed similar patterns to Cepeda et al. (2005), Experiments 2a and 2b, which are unconfounded.”
BackgroundResultEducational Data Mining and Learning Analytics
Baker, R. S., & Inventado, P. S. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3305-7_4 · Cited by 1,423
Hulstijn, J. H. (2001) · Cognition and Second Language Instruction · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139524780.011 · Cited by 769
“Quite remarkable in this respect are the investigations of Bahrick and his associates and relatives (Bahrick, 1984; Bahrick & Phelps, 1987; H.P. Bahrick, L.E. Bahrick, A.S. Bahrick & P.E. Bahrick, 1993).”
BackgroundLearning Versus Performance: An Integrative Review
Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691615569000 · Cited by 651
“Similarly, spacing study sessions, relative to massing them, can actually slow down the acquisition of foreign language vocabulary pairs but can still lead to superior retention—even over a span of several years (Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, & Bahrick, 1993).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E.
- Affiliations
- Ohio Wesleyan University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- University of Iowa (US)
- Ohio Wesieyan University
- Corresponding author
- Bahrick, Harry P.
- ORCID
- Bahrick, Lorraine E.
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1993-09
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 316-321
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2132404624
- Cited by
- 334
- References
- 20
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 1.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Florida International University Digital Commons (Florida International University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Keywords
- foreign language vocabulary, spacing effect, retention, relearning, spaced retrieval practice, long-term maintenance, word learning, retrieval consistency, vocabulary difficulty
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