Maintenance of Foreign Language Vocabulary and the Spacing Effect

Bahrick, Harry P.; Bahrick, Lorraine E.; Bahrick, Audrey S.; Bahrick, Phyllis E.

doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00571.x

Cited by 335Memory Processes and InfluencesSecond Language Acquisition and LearningEFL/ESL Teaching and Learning

Maintenance of Foreign Language Vocabulary and the Spacing Effect

Bahrick, Harry P., Bahrick, Lorraine E., Bahrick, Audrey S., Bahrick, Phyllis E.·1993·Psychological Science

DOI 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00571.x

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Abstract

In a 9-year longitudinal investigation, 4 subjects learned and relearned 300 English-foreign language word pairs. Either 13 or 26 relearning sessions were administered at intervals of 14, 28, or 56 days. Retention was tested for 1.2.3. or 5 years after training terminated. The longer intersession intervals slowed down acquisition slightly, but this disadvantage during training was offset by substantially higher retention. Thirteen retraining sessions spaced at 56 days yielded retention comparable to 26 sessions spaced at 14 days. The retention benefit due to additional sessions was independent of the benefit due to spacing, and both variables facilitated retention of words regardless of difficulty level and of the consistency of retrieval during training. The benefits of spaced retrieval practice to long-term maintenance of access to academic knowledge areas are discussed.

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Bahrick et al. (1993) reported that subjects needed twice as many trials in the second study session to reach criterion as gap increased from 14 to 56 days.
“Bahrick et al. (1993) reported that subjects required twice as many trials in the second study session in order to achieve criterion, as gap increased from 14 to 56 days.”
From Optimizing distributed practice (2009) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al. (1993)
Every study examined here with a retention interval longer than one month demonstrated a benefit from distribution of learning across weeks or months, as opposed to learning across a one-day interval.
“Every study examined here with a retention interval longer than one month (Bahrick, 1979; Bahrick, et al., 1993; Bahrick & Phelps, 1987; Cepeda et al., 2005) demonstrated a benefit from distribution of learning across weeks or months, as opposed to learning across a one-day interval;”
From Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. (2006) · cites this paper as Bahrick, et al., 1993
The Bahrick studies confounded number of relearning trials with ISI; there was more relearning at longer ISIs.
“These studies confounded number of relearning trials with ISI; that is, there was more relearning at longer ISIs.”
From Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. (2006) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
The 56-day gap in Bahrick et al. (1993) was a relatively short proportion of the extremely long retention intervals used, and this ratio is probably most critical.
“However, 56 days is actually a relatively short proportion of the extremely long retention intervals used in Bahrick et al.'s study, and it is this ratio that is probably most critical, as will emerge below.”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993
In Bahrick et al. (1993), increasing the inter-study spacing out to 56 days improved performance in acquisition and retention of foreign language vocabulary over several years.
“The results showed that increasing the inter-study spacing out to 56 days improved performance (Figure 2).”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Bahrick et al., 1993

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Successful Lecturing: Presenting Information in Ways That Engage Effective Processing
deWinstanley, P. A., & Bjork, R. A. (2002) · New Directions for Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1002/tl.44 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
LearningQ: A Large-Scale Dataset for Educational Question Generation
Chen, G., Yang, J., Hauff, C., & Houben, G.-J. (2018) · Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media · doi:10.1609/icwsm.v12i1.14987 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Previous research has shown that the number of questions learners receive about a knowledge concept is positively correlated with the effectiveness of knowledge retention (Bahrick et al. 1993).”
Background
Research Commentary: The Effects of Spacing and Mixing Practice Problems
Rohrer, D. (2009) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.40.1.0004 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Augmented Self-Modeling as a Treatment for Children with Selective Mutism
Kehle, T. J., Madaus, M. M. R., Baratta, V. S., & Bray, M. A. (1998) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-4405(98)00013-2 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Spaced cognitive training promotes training transfer.
Wang, Z., Zhou, R., & Shah, P. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00217 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Likewise, tasks that are adaptive and cognitively challenging may also limit the extent to which task-specific strategies that can be developed.”
Background
Measuring study time distributions: Implications for designing computer-based courses
Taraban, R., Maki, W. S., & Rynearson, K. (1999) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03207718 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
EFFECTS OF MASSING AND SPACING ON THE LEARNING OF SEMANTICALLY RELATED AND UNRELATED WORDS
Nakata, T., & Suzuki, Y. (2019) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263118000219 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“This adds to existing literature suggesting that spacing facilitates L2 vocabulary learning (e.g., Bahrick et al., 1993; Nakata, 2015; Nakata & Webb, 2016).”
BackgroundResult
Learning and Long-Term Retention of Large-Scale Artificial Languages
Frank, M. C., Tenenbaum, J., & Gibson, E. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052500 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Second, the scale of learning is consistent with previous work on long-term lexical memory [44].”
Result
Spacing Repetitions Over Long Timescales: A Review and a Reconsolidation Explanation
Smith, C., & Scarf, D. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00962 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“…seem unusual, a close reading of the studies referenced reveals that this finding is very consistent (Keppel, 1964, 1967; Bahrick, 1979; Glenberg and Lehmann, 1980; Bloom and Shuell, 1981; Bahrick et al., 1993; Moss, 1995; Cepeda et al., 2006, 2009; Simone et al., 2013; Suzuki and DeKeyser, 2015).”
Result
A comparative analysis of massed vs. distributed practice on basic math fact fluency growth rates
Schutte, G. M., Duhon, G. J., Solomon, B. G., Poncy, B. C., Moore, K., & Story, B. (2015) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2014.12.003 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Interleaved practice in multi-dimensional learning tasks: Which dimension should we interleave?
Rau, M. A., Aleven, V., & Rummel, N. (2013) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.07.003 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Spaced vs. massed distribution instruction for L2 grammar learning
Miles, S. W. (2014) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2014.01.014 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Metacognitive control and the spacing effect.
Son, L. K. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0017892 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Studies have, in fact, shown that during spaced study (more than during massed study), not only is acquisition slower but also confidence is lower (Bahrick et al., 1993; Zechmeister & Shaughnessy, 1980).”
Background
How do students study in STEM courses? Findings from a light-touch intervention and its relevance for underrepresented students
Rodriguez, F., Rivas, M. J., Matsumura, L. H., Warschauer, M., & Sato, B. K. (2018) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0200767 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“This has been shown to be effective for long-term learning in a variety of different scenarios, from acquiring and maintaining vocabulary from a foreign language [18] or remembering words on a list [19], among others [20].”
Background
Improving Learning Efficiency of Factual Knowledge in Medical Education
Yeh, D. D., & Park, Y. S. (2015) · Journal of surgical education · doi:10.1016/j.jsurg.2015.03.012 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Spacing and Interleaving Effects Require Distinct Theoretical Bases: a Systematic Review Testing the Cognitive Load and Discriminative-Contrast Hypotheses
Chen, O., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09613-w · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The lag effect in secondary school classrooms: Enhancing students’ memory for vocabulary
Kuepper-Tetzel, C. E., Erdfelder, E., & Dickhäuser, O. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9285-2 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Accelerating Early Math Learning with Research-Based Personalized Learning Games: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial
Thai, K.-P., Bang, H. J., & Li, L. (2021) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2021.1969710 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Dynamic internal states shape memory retrievalPreprint
Tarder-Stoll, H., Jayakumar, M., Dimsdale-Zucker, H. R., Günseli, E., & Aly, M. (2019) · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107328 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Spacing Simultaneously Promotes Multiple Forms of Learning in Children's Science Curriculum
Gluckman, M., Vlach, H. A., & Sandhofer, C. M. (2014) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2997 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Does testing with feedback help grade-school children learn key concepts in science?
Lipko, A. R., Dunlosky, J. T., & Rawson, K. A. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.04.002 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Metacognitive Control: Children's Short-Term Versus Long-Term Study Strategies
Son, L. K. (2005) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.3200/genp.132.4.347-364 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“More specifically, people choose to mass items that are judged as difficult and space items that are judged as easy, which supports the assumption that people choose to study an item until it is fully encoded, and only until fully encoded (Bahrick et al., 1993; Simon & Bjork, 2001).”
Background
Education of a model student
Novikoff, T. P., Kleinberg, J. M., & Strogatz, S. H. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1109863109 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Neural correlates of the spacing effect in explicit verbal semantic encoding support the deficient‐processing theory
Callan, D. E., & Schweighofer, N. (2010) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20894 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Indeed, forgetting is known to be faster after massed practice [Bahrick et al., 1993; Pavlik and Anderson, 2005].”
Background
Optimizing Learning in Surgical Simulations: Guidelines from the Science of Learning and Human Performance
Cannon‐Bowers, J. A., Bowers, C. A., & Procci, K. (2010) · Surgical Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.suc.2010.02.006 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Effect of Massed Versus Interleaved Teaching Method on Performance of Students in Radiology
Rozenshtein, A., Pearson, G. D. N., Yan, S. X., Liu, A. Z., & Toy, D. (2016) · Journal of the American College of Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacr.2016.03.031 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Understanding the underlying mechanism of the spacing effect in verbal learning: a case for encoding variability and study-phase retrieval
Maddox, G. B. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2016.1181637 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The time window hypothesis: Spacing effects
Rovee‐Collier, C., Evancio, S., & Earley, L. A. (1995) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/0163-6383(95)90008-x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
How Should Intelligent Tutoring Systems Sequence Multiple Graphical Representations of Fractions? A Multi-Methods Study
Rau, M. A., Aleven, V., Rummel, N., & Pardos, Z. A. (2013) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-013-0011-7 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Testing the deficient processing account of the spacing effect in second language vocabulary learning: Evidence from eye tracking
Koval, N. G. (2019) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716419000158 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Confidence judgments in real classroom settings: Monitoring performance in different types of tests
Filho, M. K. D. C. (2008) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207590701436744 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Déjà Vu All Over Again: Effects of Reenactment on Toddlers' Event Memory
Hudson, J. A., & Sheffield, E. G. (1998) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06132.x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Evaluating the Theoretic Adequacy and Applied Potential of Computational Models of the Spacing Effect
Walsh, M. M., Gluck, K. A., Glenn Gunzelmann, A., Jastrzembski, T. S., & Krusmark, M. (2018) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12602 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Balancing Approaches: Revisiting the Educational Psychology Research on Teaching Students with Learning Difficulties
Ellis, L. A. (2005) · ACEReSearch Repository (Australian Council for Educational Research) · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Spacing Effects on Learning and Memory ☆
Carpenter, S. K. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21054-7 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Developing an intelligent tool for computer-assisted formulaic language learning from YouTube videos
Lin, P. (2021) · ReCALL · doi:10.1017/s0958344021000252 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Informed by Bahrick et al.’s (1993) experimental findings, the system has been set to provide 13 repetitions at 14-day intervals.”
Method

Additional acquisition sessions monotonically benefit retention and relearning
Cognitive Science Society 2021, Fiechter, J., Jastrzembski, T. S., Krusmark, M., Michael Gordon Collins, M., & Sense, F. (2021) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · doi:10.48448/s2dm-4y13
Costs and Benefits of Spacing for Second Language Vocabulary Learning: Does Relearning Override the Positive and Negative Effects of Spacing?
Nakata, T., Suzuki, Y., & He, X. (2022) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12553 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Spaced Retrieval Improves Retention and Transfer of Foreign VocabularyPreprint
Alakbarova, D., & Ball, H. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/tfv64
O278-7393/87/SOO.75 Retention of Spanish Vocabulary Over
Bahrick, H. P., & Phelps, E. (2013)
Self-citation
Spaced retrieval: Absolute spacing enhances learning regardless of relative spacing.
Karpicke, J. D., & Kaminske, A. N. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0023436 · Cited by 263 · see citing works

Authors: Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E.
Affiliations: Ohio Wesleyan University (US)
Florida International University (US)
University of Iowa (US)
Ohio Wesieyan University
Corresponding author: Bahrick, Harry P.
ORCID: Bahrick, Lorraine E.
Venue: Psychological Science
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 1993-09
Volume: 4
Issue: 5
Pages: 316-321
ISSN: 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
1467-9280
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00571.x
OpenAlex: W2132404624
Cited by: 334
References: 20
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 1.80
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
Florida International University Digital Commons (Florida International University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
Keywords: foreign language vocabulary, spacing effect, retention, relearning, spaced retrieval practice, long-term maintenance, word learning, retrieval consistency, vocabulary difficulty

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Maintenance of Foreign Language Vocabulary and the Spacing Effect

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