Cited by 269Language Development and DisordersChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentMaternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum

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Early parental depression and child language development

Paulson, James F., Keefe, Heather A., Leiferman, Jenn A.·2009·Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry

DOI 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01973.x

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Abstract

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of early maternal and paternal depression on child expressive language at age 24 months and the role that parent-to-child reading may play in this pathway. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: The 9-month and 24-month waves from a national prospective study of children and their families, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study - Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), provided data on 4,109 two-parent families. Depressive symptoms were measured with a short form of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Parents reported on positive parent-infant interactions, child expressive vocabulary, and demographic and health information at child age 9 and 24 months. Linear regression was used to estimate associations between depression, parenting, and child vocabulary. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesis that parent reading behavior mediates the parent depression to child vocabulary pathway. These models were adjusted for demographic indicators. RESULTS: As previously reported from this national sample, 14% of mothers and 10% of fathers exhibited elevated levels of depressive symptoms at 9 months. For both mothers and fathers, depression at 9 months was negatively associated with contemporaneous parent-to-child reading. Only for fathers, however, was earlier depression associated with later reading to child and related child expressive vocabulary development. A model describing this pathway demonstrated a significant indirect pathway from depression to vocabulary via parent reading to child. CONCLUSIONS: Depression is a significant problem among both mothers and fathers of young children, but has a more marked impact on the father's reading to his child and, subsequently, the child's language development.

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Jones, S. L., Caccese, C., Davis, K. P., Lew, J., Elgbeili, G., Herba, C. M., Barnwell, J., Robert, C. H., Gavanski, I., Horsley, K. J., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1218384 · Cited by 12
Parental Responsivity and Child Communication During Mother–Child and Father–Child Interactions in Fragile X Syndrome
Potter, S. N., Harvey, D. J., Sterling, A. M., & Abbeduto, L. (2024) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2023_jslhr-23-00517 · Cited by 8
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Wong, K. K., & Esposito, G. (2019) · Parenting · doi:10.1080/15295192.2019.1556015 · Cited by 8
Antenatal Depressive Symptoms and Neurodevelopment Outcomes in Children at 30 Months. A Study From South India
Thomas, S., Vigil, E., Thomas, T. S., Bellinger, D. C., Ramthal, A., Kurpad, A. V., Duggan, C., & Srinivasan, K. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.486175 · Cited by 8
“Expressive language 37 (34, 38) 35 (32, 38) 36 (33, 38) 0.”
Parental postpartum depression and children’s receptive and expressive language during the first six years of life: A systematic review of depression timing, status, and chronicity
Clifford, B. N., Rainey, V. R., & Eggum, N. D. (2023) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2023.101105 · Cited by 8
Prevalence of antenatal depression and postpartum depression among Chinese fathers: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Xiao, G., Wang, H., Hu, J., Zhao, Z., Li, Q., & Qin, C. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35089 · Cited by 7
“Studies have shown that paternal AD and PD can not only cause or even aggravate depression in pregnant women [6,7], but also increase the risk of child abuse, developmental and behavioral problems in the offspring, and mental illness [8,9].”
Background
The Influence of Depressive Symptoms on Parenting: Examining Longitudinal Dyadic Spillover and Crossover Processes During the Transition to Parenthood
Fentz, H. N., Nygaard, K., Simonsen, M., & Trillingsgaard, T. (2021) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x211051387 · Cited by 7
When the Bough Breaks: Rethinking Treatment Strategies for Perinatal Depression
Rosenquist, S. E. (2013) · American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis · doi:10.1080/00029157.2012.723284 · Cited by 7
Perinatal mental health 3 Eff ects of perinatal mental disorders on the fetus and child
Stein, A. L., Pearson, R. M., Goodman, S. H., Rapa, E., Rahman, A., McCallum, M., Howard, L. M., & Pariante, C. M. (2014) · Cited by 7
Concurrent Trajectories of Female Drinking and Smoking Behaviors Throughout Transitions to Pregnancy and Early Parenthood
Liu, W., & Mumford, E. A. (2017) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-017-0780-6 · Cited by 7
“…measured with a modified 12-item version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (severe or moderate depression vs. low or no depression per Paulson et al. (2009)); marital status (married or cohabitating vs. others) (Meschke et al. 2013); household income-poverty (”
Native American children and school readiness: A nationally representative study of individual and cumulative risks
Riser, Q. H., Rouse, H. L., Dorius, C. J., & Choi, J. Y. (2019) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104496 · Cited by 9
Frühe bindungsfördernde Eltern-Kind-Therapie bei psychischen Störungen in der Postpartalzeit
Bittner, A., Coenen, A., Garthus‐Niegel, S., & Weidner, K. (2021) · Ärztliche Psychotherapie · doi:10.21706/aep-16-4-240 · Cited by 6
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Griffin, L. B., Miller, E. S., & Howard, E. (2022) · The Journal of Perinatal & Neonatal Nursing · doi:10.1097/jpn.0000000000000688 · Cited by 6
“Untreated paternal PPD can lead to alcohol or substance abuse or interpersonal violence for fathers,(40,44) increases the risk of maternal PPD, and can lead to impaired cognitive development for children.(49,50) Thus, preventing paternal PPD”
Background
“Another Way to Talk About Feeling Bad”. Creative Interactive Bibliotherapy – A Complement to Treatment for Women with Mental Illness After Childbirth
Pettersson, C. (2021) · Journal of Poetry Therapy · doi:10.1080/08893675.2021.2004369 · Cited by 6
“…and “postpartum depression”, and that hit was a study examining the importance of reading for language development in young children who had parents with postpartum depression, and thus did not concern how reading can be used to affect the parents’ health or well-being; see Paulson et al. (2009).”
Background
Exploring Mothers’ Experience of a Linguistic Feedback Technology for Children at Risk of Poor Language Development: Qualitative Pilot Study
So, L., Miller, E., & Eastwood, J. G. (2021) · JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting · doi:10.2196/27049 · Cited by 8
Study protocol for a randomised controlled trial to test the effectiveness of providing information on childbirth and postnatal period to partners of pregnant women
Takehara, K., Okamura, M., Sugiura, N., Suto, M., Sasaki, H., & Mori, R. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011919 · Cited by 5
Treating Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in the Postpartum Period: Diagnostic and Cultural Considerations
Fang, A., Berman, N. C., Chen, J. A., & Zakhary, L. (2017) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000146 · Cited by 6
Paternal depression
Dhillon, H., Sasidharan, S., Dhillon, G. K., & Babitha, M. (2022) · Industrial Psychiatry Journal · doi:10.4103/ipj.ipj_236_20 · Cited by 5
“[10,11] Children with paternal depression also scored high on scores of hyperactivity, oppositional defiant/conduct disorder and peer group problems.”
Family and Caregiver Characteristics Contribute to Caregiver Change in Use of Strategies and Growth in Child Spoken Language in a Parent-Implemented Language Intervention in Fragile X Syndrome
Potter, S. N., Bullard, L., Banasik, A., Feigles, R. T., Nguyen, V. H., McDuffie, A. S., Thurman, A. J., Hagerman, R. J., & Abbeduto, L. (2022) · Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups · doi:10.1044/2022_persp-22-00016 · Cited by 5
“This finding is consistent with past research in families of both neurotypical children and children with other developmental disabilities (e.g., Justice et al., 2019; Paulson et al., 2009).”
Result
Family Socioeconomic Status and Cognitive Performance of Hong Kong Preschool Children: The Role of Parental Investment and Parental Distress
Lau, M. K.-W., Zhang, M., Chou, K., Poon, K., & Gordon, D. (2025) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-025-01918-7 · Cited by 4
Parental Depression and Contextual Selection: The Case of School Choice
Schachner, J. N. (2021) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465211001058 · Cited by 4
“Reduced levels of participation in educational enrichment activities among depressed parents (Kiernan and Huerta 2008; Paulson et al. 2009) may also play a role.”
BackgroundInfluential
Growth Models of Maternal Smoking Behavior: Individual and Contextual Factors
Mumford, E. A., & Liu, W. (2015) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826084.2014.998234 · Cited by 4
“Following Paulson et al. (2009), a binary depression indicator was coded “moderate to severe depression” (1) if a total score (the average of all responses for individuals who answered at least nine out of 12 items) was at least 10.”
Background
Maternal depression is associated with decreased functional connectivity within semantics and phonology networks in preschool children
Farah, R., Dudley, J. A., Hutton, J., Greenwood, P. B., Holland, S. K., & Horowitz‐Kraus, T. (2021) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23168 · Cited by 4
Paternal postnatal depression: prevalence and the associated demographic and maternal reproductive factors among Iranian fathers
Yazdanpanahi, Z., Mirmolaei, S. T., Taghizadeh, Z., Jaafarpour, M., & Hajifoghaha, M. (2023) · Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology · doi:10.1080/02646838.2023.2201844 · Cited by 5
“PND among fathers may affect all aspects of family life, including their relationships with their spouse and children as well as their parental role (Bruno et al., 2020; Field, 2018; Paulson et al., 2009; Sweeney & MacBeth, 2016).”
Father Involvement and Early Childhood Development in African American Families: Implications for Research, Practice, and Policy
Baker, C. E. (2017) · Advances in race and ethnicity in education · doi:10.1108/s2051-231720170000005009 · Cited by 3
Attachment and Self Regulation in Preschool Age Children
Pearson, K. (2013) · Digital Commons - URI (University of Rhode Island) · doi:10.23860/thesis-pearson-kate-2013 · Cited by 4
Happy mothers, healthy minds: Maternal welfare and children's early development in the global south
Le, D. V., & Bui, D. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118803 · Cited by 3
Validating the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales‐21 in Community Mothers and Fathers Across the Infant's First Year
Kerstis, B., Jönsson, P., Derwig, M., Nilsson, K. W., Hallström, I., & Lindeberg, S. I. (2025) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.70099 · Cited by 3
“Paternal depressive symptoms have been demonstrated to increase child risks in terms of impairments in parenting capacity (Paulson et al. 2009; Davis et al. 2011), as well as long-term psychopathology and functioning in the child, independently of maternal postnatal depression (Ramchandani et al.…”
¡Qué Padre! Measuring Latino Fathers' Involvement with Infants
Molloy, S., Singley, D. B., Ingram, P. B., Cole, B. P., & Dye, A. R. (2021) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12543 · Cited by 3
“Lower levels of father involvement have been found to be associated with higher depressive symptoms, stress, and anxiety (Baker, 2014; Paulson et al., 2009).”
Background
Addressing perinatal mood and anxiety disorders in obstetric settings: results of a cluster randomized controlled trial of two approaches
Byatt, N., Zimmermann, M., Lightbourne, T. C., Sankaran, P., Haider, U. K., Sheldrick, R. C., Eliasziw, M., & Simas, T. A. M. (2025) · American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology MFM · doi:10.1016/j.ajogmf.2024.101599 · Cited by 4
Exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in late pregnancy increases the risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn, but the absolute risk is low
Byatt, N., & Freeman, M. P. (2014) · Evidence-Based Nursing · doi:10.1136/eb-2014-101786 · Cited by 3
Investigation of Predisposing Factors of Paternal Postpartum Depression
Shamsikhani, S., Soleimani, N., Saedi, M., Shamsikhani, S., Matourypour, P., & Soleimani, H. (2017) · Journal of psychiatric nursing · Cited by 3
The effect of early-life exposure of stress-sensitive rats to the serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor Vanlafaxine on behaviour in adulthood
Steyn, S. F. (2011) · Boloka Institutional Repository (North-west University) · Cited by 3

Authors: Paulson, J. F., Keefe, H. A., & Leiferman, J. A.
Affiliations: Eastern Virginia Medical School (US)
University of Colorado Denver (US)
Corresponding author: Paulson, James F.
ORCID: Leiferman, Jenn A.
Venue: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2009-03
Volume: 50
Issue: 3
Pages: 254-262
ISSN: 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
1469-7610
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01973.x
OpenAlex: W2051886918
Cited by: 267
References: 47
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 18
FWCI: 21.56
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
Keywords: parental depression, maternal depression, paternal depression, child language acquisition, expressive vocabulary, mediation, parent-infant interaction, early childhood
MeSH terms: Bibliotherapy, Child Language, Child, Preschool, Communication, Demography, Fathers, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Infant, Male, Mothers, Parent-Child Relations, Parents, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reading, Severity of Illness Index, Depression, Postpartum

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