The Electoral Costs of Party Loyalty in Congress
Abstract
To what extent is party loyalty a liability for incumbent legislators? Past research on legislative voting and elections suggests that voters punish members who are ideologically “out of step” with their districts. In seeking to move beyond the emphasis in the literature on the effects of ideological extremity on legislative vote share, we examine how partisan loyalty can adversely affect legislators' electoral fortunes. Specifically, we estimate the effects of each legislator's party unity—the tendency of a member to vote with his or her party on salient issues that divide the two major parties—on vote margin when running for reelection. Our results suggest that party loyalty on divisive votes can indeed be a liability for incumbent House members. In fact, we find that voters are not punishing elected representatives for being too ideological; they are punishing them for being too partisan .
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cites
(2001) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 27,577 · see citing works
Econometric Analysis of Panel Data
Baltagi, B. H. (2021) · Springer Texts in Business and Economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-53953-5 · Cited by 15,104 · see citing works
DeLamater, J., & Ward, A. (2013) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0 · Cited by 7,565 · see citing works
Eulau, H. H. F. (1960) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/1952653 · Cited by 4,749 · see citing works
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-3182 · Cited by 4,740 · see citing works
Congress, The Electoral Connection
Ross, M. J., & Mayhew, D. R. (1975) · The Western Political Quarterly · doi:10.2307/447379 · Cited by 4,094 · see citing works
Elder, J. W., Geertz, C., & Rosenhack, K. P. S. (1964) · Cited by 3,878 · see citing works
Congress: The Electoral Connection, by David R. Mayhew
Page, B. I. (1975) · Political Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2148248 · Cited by 3,141 · see citing works
THE NATURE OF BELIEF SYSTEMS IN MASS PUBLICS
Converse, P. E. (2004) · Aarhus University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/jj.35529187.18 · Cited by 2,521 · see citing works
Constituency Influence in Congress
Miller, W. E., & Stokes, D. (1963) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/1952717 · Cited by 2,333 · see citing works
Legislative leviathan: party government in the House
(1993) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.31-0579 · Cited by 2,294 · see citing works
The logic of congressional action
(1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-4778 · Cited by 1,802 · see citing works
Polarized America: the dance of ideology and unequal riches
(2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-3551 · Cited by 1,793 · see citing works
The Politics of Congressional Elections
Jacobson, G. C. (1983) · Cited by 1,713 · see citing works
Home Style: House Members in Their Districts, by Richard F. Fenno, Jr.
Leuthold, D. A. (1979) · Political Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2150167 · Cited by 1,602 · see citing works
Sniderman, P. M., Brody, R. A., & Tetlock, P. E. (1991) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511720468 · Cited by 1,544 · see citing works
Parties and Leaders in the Postreform House
Rohde, D. W. (1991) · University of Chicago Press eBooks · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226724058.001.0001 · Cited by 1,418 · see citing works
Partisanship and Voting Behavior, 1952-1996
Bartels, L. M. (2000) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2669291 · Cited by 1,207 · see citing works
Cox, G. W., & McCubbins, M. D. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511791123 · Cited by 1,126 · see citing works
Congressmen's Voting Decisions
Haston, B. M., & Kingdon, J. W. (1974) · The Western Political Quarterly · doi:10.2307/447700 · Cited by 901 · see citing works
Candidate Positioning in U.S. House Elections
Ansolabehere, S. D., Snyder, J. M., & Stewart, C. H., III (2001) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2669364 · Cited by 844 · see citing works
Out of Step, Out of Office: Electoral Accountability and House Members' Voting
Canes‐Wrone, B., Brady, D., & Cogan, J. F. (2002) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055402004276 · Cited by 835 · see citing works
Representatives, roll calls, and constituencies
Fiorina, M. P. (1974) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 766 · see citing works
Congressmen's Voting Decisions
Kingdon, J. W. (1989) · University of Michigan Press eBooks · doi:10.3998/mpub.7354 · Cited by 729 · see citing works
Party Polarization in Congress
Theriault, S. M. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511790652 · Cited by 658 · see citing works
Krehbiel, K. (1993) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123400009741 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Smith, M. B., Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., Miller, W. E., & Stokes, D. (1961) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1419686 · Cited by 559 · see citing works
Money in congressional elections
Jacobson, G. C. (1983) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/0261-3794(83)90067-7 · Cited by 484 · see citing works
Polarized politics: Congress and the president in a partisan era
(2000) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.38-2423 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
Candidates and Parties in Congressional Elections
Mann, T. E., & Wolfinger, R. E. (1980) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/1958145 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Representation in Congress: Constituents and Roll Calls in the 106th House
Clinton, J. D. (2006) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00415.x · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Jacobson, G. C. (1987) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2111327 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
Cox, G. W., & McCubbins, M. D. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511810060 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Electoral Competition and Democratic Responsiveness: A Defense of the Marginality Hypothesis
Griffin, J. D. (2006) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00479.x · Cited by 267 · see citing works
On Measuring Partisanship in Roll-Call Voting: The U.S. House of Representatives, 1877-1999
Cox, G. W., & Poole, K. T. (2002) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/3088393 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Strategic Party Government: Party Influence in Congress, 1789–2000
Lebo, M. J., McGlynn, A. J., & Koger, G. (2007) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00262.x · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Self-citationStrategy, Selection, and Candidate Competition in U.S. House and Senate Elections
Carson, J. L. (2005) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00305.x · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Variable Incumbency Advantage: New Voters, Redistricting, and the Personal Vote
DESPOSATO, S. W., & Petrocik, J. R. (2003) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/1540-5907.00002 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
On Measuring Partisanship in Roll Call Voting: The U.S. House of Representatives, 1877-1999Preprint
Cox, G. W., & Poole, K. T. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1154125 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
War for the Floor: Partisan Theory and Agenda Control In the U.S. House of Representatives
Finocchiaro, C. J., & Rohde, D. W. (2008) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.3162/036298008783743273 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
The Electoral Impact of Congressional Roll Call Voting
Erickson, R. S. (1971) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/1953495 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
The 1994 House Elections in Perspective
Jacobson, G. C. (1996) · Political Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2152319 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Position-Taking and Electoral Accountability in the U.S. House of Representatives
Bovitz, G. L., & Carson, J. L. (2006) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/106591290605900211 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationKING, D. C., & Zeckhauser, R. (2003) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.3162/036298003x200935 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
The Electoral Connection in the Early Congress: The Case of the Compensation Act of 1816
Bianco, W. T., Spence, D. B., & Wilkerson, J. (1996) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2111698 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Monroe, N. W., & Robinson, G. (2008) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1017/s0022381607080152 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Jacobson, G. C. (1987) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Insulation and Responsiveness in Congressional Elections
Burnham, W. D. (1975) · Political Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2148294 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Candidates' Policy Positions and Voting in U. S. Congressional Elections
Wright, G. (1978) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.2307/439453 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Issue Accountability and the Mass Public
Canes‐Wrone, B., Minozzi, W., & REVELEY, J. B. (2011) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1939-9162.2010.00002.x · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Dominant Regimes and the Demise of Urban Democracy
Trounstine, J. L. (2006) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00477.x · Cited by 59 · see citing works
The 1994 House Elections in Perspective
Jacobson, G. C. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429040177-1 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Parties as Procedural Coalitions in Congress: An Examination of Differing Career Tracks
Jenkins, J. A., Crespin, M. H., & Carson, J. L. (2005) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.3162/036298005x201590 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationSieberer, U. (2006) · MADOC (University of Mannheim) · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Carson, J. L., & Roberts, J. M. (2011) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199559947.003.0007 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Canes‐Wrone Brandice, 2007, Party, Process, and Political Change in Congress, Volume 2: Further New Perspectives on the History of Congress, 113
- Erikson Robert S., 2001, Congress Reconsidered, 67
- Fenno Richard F., 1978, Home Style
- Poole Keith T., 2007, Ideology and Congress
Cited by
Still being checked.
- Authors
- Carson, J. L., Koger, G., Lebo, M. J., & Young, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Georgia (US)
- University of Miami (US)
- Stony Brook University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Political Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2010-06-21
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 598-616
- ISSN
- 0092-5853 (ISSN-L)
- 1540-5907
- OpenAlex
- W2149150235
- Semantic Scholar
- eb752a11668983f11e22bafcc3f49d091dd36780
- Cited by
- 332
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 87.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Political Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Politics and Representation
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › American Constitutional Law and Politics
- Keywords
- political affiliation, partisan loyalty, incumbent legislators, electoral costs, vote margins, legislative voting, ideological extremity, House of Representatives elections, congressional elections, voter punishment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
