The DOI matches its Crossref record; 108 of the 108 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
LOW SELF‐CONTROL, ROUTINE ACTIVITIES, AND FRAUD VICTIMIZATION*
Abstract
Recent research has used both routine activity/lifestyle frameworks and self‐control theory to explain victimization. Thus far, combined tests of these theories have focused on offending populations and street crime victimization. Whether these frameworks also explain exposure to and likelihood of nonviolent victimization (e.g., fraud) in general‐population samples remains an open empirical question. Building on prior work, we assess the independent effects of routine consumer activities (i.e., remote purchasing) and low self‐control on the likelihood of fraud targeting and victimization. Using a representative sample of 922 adults from a statewide survey in Florida, the results confirm our expectation that remote‐purchasing activities increase consumers' risk of being targeted for fraud. Low self‐control has no effect on whether consumers are targeted, but it does significantly increase the likelihood of fraud victimization.
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“Other surveys on fraud have found little to no association between race and risk of victimization (e.g., Holtfreter et al. 2008;Mesch and Dodel 2018), but sample sizes were significantly smaller and these studies focused on online forms of fraud.”
From Profiling consumers who reported mass marketing scams: demographic characteristics and emotional sentiments associated with victimization (2024) · cites this paper as Holtfreter et al. 2008
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“…in committed lines of action, desire to please others, and obedience to authority have all been linked to fraud victimization (Fischer et al., 2013; Holtfreter et al., 2008, 2010; Whitty, 2013, 2018, 2019; Titus & Gover, 2001; Van de Weijer, 2020; Van Wyk & Benson, 1997; Workman, 2007, 2008).”
BackgroundThe Dangers of Short-Term Confinement: Indicators of Safety Risks Among Individuals in Jail
Ellison, J. M., Cain, C. M., Baker, B., & Paige, B. (2022) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x221110808 · Cited by 9
“…tend to have a higher risk of victimization because they engage in risky or impulsive behaviors that increase the likelihood of, and opportunity for, multiple forms of victimization (Forde & Kennedy, 1997; Holtfreter et al., 2008; Schreck, 1999; Schreck et al., 2006; Turanovic et al., 2015).”
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Schwartz, J. A., Al‐Ghamdi, M. S., Kobeisy, A. N., Alqurashi, F. H., Connolly, E. J., & Beaver, K. M. (2016) · International Journal of Social Welfare · doi:10.1111/ijsw.12230 · Cited by 9
Correlates of Repeat Victimization and Sex Differences in South Korean Youth
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“Thus, people with low self-control are more likely to be driven by momentary pleasure without considering the consequences of their activities, making them more exposed or vulnerable to trouble and risky situations, including crime (Holtfreter et al., 2008; Schreck, Stewart, & Fisher, 2006).”
BackgroundChoi, J., & Dulisse, B. C. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519888186 · Cited by 9
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Suzuki, A., Shikata, K., & Shimada, T. (2025) · Journal of Economic Criminology · doi:10.1016/j.jeconc.2025.100186 · Cited by 8
Low Self-Control and Vaping: The Mediating Role of Health and Risk Perceptions
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“…research has used several different techniques to measure self-control, including attitudinal scales, behavioral scales, and items examining characteristics such as impulsiveness and risk-seeking (Holtfreter et al., 2008; Piquero et al., 2004; Reisig et al., 2011; Schoepfer & Piquero, 2006).”
MethodCitation Trajectories of Academic Stars from the “Hit Parade”
Jennings, W. G. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice Education · doi:10.1080/10511253.2017.1382546 · Cited by 8
“While the lion’s share of these publication 2017 Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 2018 Vol. 29, No. 2, 249–266, https://doi.org/10.1080/10511253.2017.1382546 productivity studies have relied on smaller cohorts of scholars or “academic stars” (e.g. Rice et al., 2005, 2007; Shu…”
BackgroundInfluentialCho, S., & Galehan, J. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.06.003 · Cited by 8
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“…on victimization has been well documented and demonstrated to be valid among a variety of groups, including the general population, the student population, and even the prison population (Franklin, Franklin, Nobles, & Kercher, 2012; Holtfreter et al., 2008; Kerley, Hochstetler, & Copes, 2009).”
BackgroundMethodImplications of Emerging Technologies to Incident Handling and Digital Forensic Strategies
Rahman, N. H. A., Kessler, G. C., & Choo, K. R. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-805303-4.00009-5 · Cited by 7
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“These individuals are also more likely to seek immediate gratification over long-term considerations, making them susceptible to scammers’ promises of instant rewards (Holtfreter et al., 2008).”
The Age-Graded Consequences of Victimization
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An exploratory study of victimisation and near misses in online shopping fraud
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“The factors making victimisation more likely is an issue this paper will explore and builds upon several studies that have investigated this (Holtfreter et al., 2008; J. Lee & Soberon-Ferrer, 1997; Pratt et al., 2010; Reisig & Holtfreter, 2013; Van Wilsem, 2013), several of which are very recent in…”
Xiang, H., Zhou, J., & Xie, B. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-50232-4_25 · Cited by 6
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“Anderson (2004, 2007, 2013, 2019), based on data from the Federal Trade Consumer survey, has reported that individuals aged 55 and over were, in fact, less likely than younger consumers to have been victims (see also DeLiema et. al., 2022; Fletcher & Pessanha, 2016; Holtfreter et al., 2008; Schoepfer & Piquero, 2009).”
MethodCounty trajectories of pyramid scheme victimization
Greenman, S. J., Snyder, S., Bosley, S. A., & Chenoweth, D. (2022) · Crime Law and Social Change · doi:10.1007/s10611-022-10050-1 · Cited by 6
Low Self-control, Harassment Perpetration, and Stalking Victimization among Asian College Students
Ngo, F. T., & Piquero, A. R. (2019) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2019.1671281 · Cited by 6
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Predictors of fraud victimization among the older adults in China: A machine learning analysis
Xu, L., Xu, J., Tang, Y., Li, H., & Xiang-ming, W. (2025) · Legal and Criminological Psychology · doi:10.1111/lcrp.70008 · Cited by 5
“Policymakers should prioritize outreach efforts that include financial security workshops, fraud prevention training, and easy- to-access fraud reporting channels tailored to economically disadvantaged groups (DeLiema & Witt, 2022; Holtfreter et al., 2008).”
Contact-Fraud Victimization among Urban Seniors: An Analysis of Multilevel Influencing Factors
Zhang, C., Liu, L., Zhou, S., Feng, J., Chen, J., & Xiao, L. (2022) · ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information · doi:10.3390/ijgi11030201 · Cited by 5
Predicting online fraud victimisation in Australia
Emami, C., Smith, R., & Jorna, P. (2019) · Australian Institute of Criminology eBooks · doi:10.52922/ti04015 · Cited by 6
Tech, V., & Parti, K. (2022) · International Journal of Cybersecurity Intelligence and Cybercrime · doi:10.52306/liqs5025 · Cited by 22
The Human Element of Online Consumer Scams Arising from the Coronavirus Pandemic
Whitty, M. T. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-29107-4_4 · Cited by 5
Applying Evidence-Based Profiling to Disaggregated Fraud Offenders
Kapardis, A., & Krambia‐Kapardis, M. (2016) · International library of ethics, law, and the new medicine/The international library of ethics, law, and the new medicine · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32419-7_13 · Cited by 5
van Reemst, L. (2016) · Erasmus Law Review · doi:10.5553/elr.000058 · Cited by 5
Credit Constraints and Fraud Victimization: Evidence from a Representative Chinese Household Survey
Gao, N., Ma, Y., & Xu, L. C. (2020) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-9460 · Cited by 6
Jain, J., & Ohalehi, P. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3263995 · Cited by 5
Zhou, Y., Lee, J. R., Lin, K., & Tiwari, M. (2026) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287261440144 · Cited by 4
“Consistent with previous research on fraud targeting (Chen & Xia, 2025; Holtfreter et al., 2008; Lin, Wu, et al., 2025; Mesch & Dodel, 2018; Pratt et al., 2010), non-deviant online routine activities (e.g., entertainment, learning, and commercial use) were found to significantly increase fraud…”
InfluentialRecurring Victimization and Same-Sex Attraction
Bradley, M. S., & Teasdale, B. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221087699 · Cited by 4
“Numerous studies test whether low self-control increases one’s risk of property and violent victimization (for some examples, see: Holtfreter et al., 2008; Piquero et al., 2005; Schreck et al., 2012; Schreck et al., 2006).”
BackgroundXu, L., Xu, M., Sun, Z., Xu, L., & Li, H. (2024) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2024.2365346 · Cited by 4
“…psychological factors that influence fraud victimization, including personality traits (Modic and Lea 2012; Norris and Brookes 2021), self-control (Holtfreter, Reisig, and Pratt 2008), loneliness (Xing et al. 2020), impulsivity (Whitty and Buchanan 2016), cognitive abilities (DeLiema et al. 2021;…”
Wu, L., Jamonnak, S., Ye, X., Shaw, S., Saxena, N., & Choi, K.-S. (2024) · Journal of Applied Security Research · doi:10.1080/19361610.2024.2368969 · Cited by 4
“Additionally, Mustaine and Tewksbury (1998) used RAT to predict victimization risks through demographic variables, and Holtfreter et al. (2008) combined RAT and self-control theory to explain online fraud victimization.”
Siu, J. C. L., Zhong, H., & Nivette, A. E. (2024) · Asian Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11417-024-09438-w · Cited by 4
“…instance, individuals who undertake high levels of online routine activities, such as time spent on computer use, internet communications, and internet banking, are more likely to be scammed by motivated offenders online (Holtfreter et al., 2008; Hutchings & Hayes, 2009; Reisig & Holtfreter, 2013).”
Branic, N. (2012) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 4
Mears, D. P., & Cochran, J. C. (2019) · Cited by 4
Shifting the Blame? Investigation of User Compliance with Digital Payment Regulations
van der Zee, S. (2021) · Crime and justice in digital society · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-60527-8_5 · Cited by 4
Guedes, I., dos Santos, M. A., Santos, G., Machado, M. S., Teixeira, N., & Cardoso, C. S. D. F. L. P. (2023) · European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10610-023-09538-w · Cited by 4
“…appears to be the most salient individual risk factor for distinguishing both victimization and delin-quency trajectories, in what is also regarded as victim-offender overlap (Boutwell et al., 2013; Fox et al., 2010; Holtfreter et al., 2008; Jennings et al., 2010; Pratt & Cullen, 2000).”
Correlates of diverse pathways in violent victimization in early adolescence
Jo, Y., & Lee, B. (2016) · International journal of law, crime and justice · doi:10.1016/j.ijlcj.2016.11.003 · Cited by 4
“Researchers also found a significant influence of low self-control on victimization of assault (Ousey et al., 2008), fraud (Holtfreter et al., 2008; Holtfreter et al., 2010), cybercrime (Bossler and Holt, 2010; Reisig et al., 2009), sexual assault (Franklin, 2011), school crime (Tillyer et al.,…”
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de Vries, I. (2020) · doi:10.17760/d20384390 · Cited by 4
Holtfreter, K. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_75 · Cited by 4
Self-citationThe Consumer Scam: An Agency-Theoretic Approach
Pouryousefi, S., & Frooman, J. (2023) · doi:10.32920/24148233.v1 · Cited by 5
Chen, M., & Xia, Y. (2025) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2025.2465691 · Cited by 3
“It is noteworthy that online purchasing significantly increases the susceptibility to both targeting and victimization in remote fraud, contrary to the results of Holtfreter, Reisig, and Pratt (2008) who found no association between remote purchasing and fraud victimization.”
InfluentialFraud on Taobao: an application of routine activity theory
Fu, P., Nikitkov, A. N., & Bay, D. D. (2013) · International Journal of Business Information Systems · doi:10.1504/ijbis.2013.056719 · Cited by 3
“, 2009), obscene phone calls (Ebberline, 2008) or consumer fraud (Holtfreter et al., 2008) which are not violent crimes and which can be conducted via phone, e-mail or even the banking system.”
BackgroundFor Whom the School Bell Tolls: Explaining Students’ Fear of Crime and Perceptions of Risk
Gialopsos, B. A. (2011) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 3
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Pratt, T. C. (2018) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/0734016818763245 · Cited by 3
“But what is really important—at any stage of the life course—is the answer to this question: What are the factors that facilitate the transition from being a target to being a victim (see, e.g., Holtfreter, Reisig, & Pratt, 2008; Van Wilsem, 2013)?”
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Mesly, O., Mavoori, H., & Huck, N. (2022) · Journal of the Knowledge Economy · doi:10.1007/s13132-021-00862-2 · Cited by 5
“They exhibit low self-control so that astute financiers are more likely to trick them (Holtfreter et al., 2008).”
BackgroundWho accepts electoral clientelism? The role of personality traits in Romania
Gherghina, S., & Lutai, R. C. (2023) · Journal of Contemporary European Studies · doi:10.1080/14782804.2023.2174503 · Cited by 3
“Low self-control may be also associated with clientelism because it requires some degree of cooperation between the voter and the party, similar to what happens in the case of victims and perpetrators in crimes (Holtfreter, Reisig, and Pratt 2008).”
General strain and procedural justice in retail banking
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Policastro, C. N. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/4179697 · Cited by 3
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Waschka, L., & Cunha, M. (2026) · Journal of Consumer Policy · doi:10.1007/s10603-026-09619-3 · Cited by 2
A longitudinal assessment on the development of financial fraud offending
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“…in the absence of suitable guardians, RAT can prove useful as an explanation for criminal opportunity in cyberspace (Bossler Holt and May 2012; Choi, 2008; Holtfreter et al., 2008; Hutchings and Hayes, 2009; Kalia and Aleem, 2017; Mesch, 2009; Navarro and Jasinski, 2012; Reyns et al., 2011).”
BackgroundIntravia, J. (2022) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2022.2124134 · Cited by 2
“…has used several different techniques to measure self-control, including attitudinal scales, behavioral scales, and items examining characteristics such as impulsiveness and risk-seeking (Holtfreter et al. 2008; Piquero et al. 2004; Reisig, Wolfe, and Holtfreter 2011; Schoepfer and Piquero 2006).”
MethodExamining the link between assault victimization and ADHD among college men
Snyder, J. A. (2018) · Criminal Justice Studies · doi:10.1080/1478601x.2018.1555159 · Cited by 2
“Low self-control has been linked to a higher risk of victimization in several studies (Holtfreter et al., 2008; Schreck, 1999; Schreck et al., 2006; Schreck, Wright, & Miller, 2002).”
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Moule, R. K. (2014) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-67284-4_23 · Cited by 2
Understanding the Role of Vaping in Criminal Behavior Among Adolescents
Vito, A. G., Rocheleau, G. C., & Intravia, J. (2021) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/07340168211001914 · Cited by 2
“Previous research has utilized similar measures of risk-taking behaviors as indicators of low self-control (Antonaccio & Tittle, 2008; Holtfreter et al., 2008; Zimmerman et al., 2015).”
MethodWall Street à Hollywood : une perspective de criminologie culturelle visuelle
Nagels, C., & Vanhamme, F. (2022) · Criminocorpus revue hypermédia · doi:10.4000/criminocorpus.10354 · Cited by 2
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META-ANALYSIS STUDY: THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR IN FRAUD BEHAVIOR
Handayani, P. F., & Sartika, D. (2023) · Jurnal Apresiasi Ekonomi · doi:10.31846/jae.v11i3.661 · Cited by 1
“This is crucial because individuals account for a significant percentage of fraud-related losses (Holtfreter et al., 2008; Timofeyev, 2015).”
BackgroundTang, X., Lam, J. S. T., & Garrett, B. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27751 · Cited by 1
Identifying Risky Places on Campus: The Impact of LSC and Fear of Crime
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“…the link between self-control and victimization across a variety of victimization types (e.g., Franklin, 2011; Franklin et al., 2012; Guedes et al., 2023; Higgins et al., 2009; Holtfreter et al., 2008; Pratt, 2016; Pratt & Cullen, 2000; Pratt et al., 2014; Schreck, 1999; Turanovic et al., 2015).”
Fraud events in the coolest of neighbourhoods: A case study from Gothenburg, Sweden
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“Inaddition to loneliness, high impulsivity may lead to high rates of fraud victimization (Holtfreter et al. 2008; Van Wilsem, 2013).”
Meldrum, R. C., Partin, R. D., & Lehmann, P. S. (2026) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2026.2621153 · Cited by 1
Chanenson, J., Matthews, T. L., Consolvo, S., Kelley, P. G., McClearn, J., Meiklejohn, S., Roy, A., Shelby, R. M., Thomas, K., & Hassoun, A. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790556 · Cited by 1
“Social science research has analyzed psychological factors shaping scam susceptibility [22, 27, 31, 45, 70, 81, 93], using surveys to find correlations between susceptibility and traits like impulsivity [76], high trust in others [58], or neuroticism [124].”
Trends and developments in individual financial fraud research: a bibliometric study
Khalid, M., & Akhter, J. (2026) · IIMT Journal of Management · doi:10.1108/iimtjm-01-2026-0001 · Cited by 1
Identity Theft: Nature, Extent, and Global Response
Golladay, K. A. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90307-1_40-1 · Cited by 1
Farrall, S. D., & Karstedt, S. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199595037.003.0005 · Cited by 1
Causes of Cyberbullying: Three Theoretical Explanations
刘, 言. (2020) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2020.1012223 · Cited by 1
Chintakrindi, S., & Gupta, S. (2022) · International Journal of Criminology and Sociology · doi:10.6000/1929-4409.2022.11.12 · Cited by 1
Evaluation of Current Investigations and Future Directions in White-Collar Crime
Sarkar, S. (2023) · Scholars International Journal of Law Crime and Justice · doi:10.36348/sijlcj.2023.v06i02.003 · Cited by 1
Brancale, J. N., Blomberg, T. G., & Beaver, K. M. (2024) · Journal of Aging & Social Policy · doi:10.1080/08959420.2024.2422670 · Cited by 1
“For example, Holtfreter et al. (2008) found that older adults who regularly socialized with friends, family, and neighbors and participated in social activity outside of the home were less likely to be victims of financial exploitation than were those who did not.”
The Impact of Financial Literacy on Online Financial Scam Victimization
., M. A. Q. A. B., Yahya, M. H. D. H., Mustafa, H., & Ni, S. W. (2024) · International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting Finance and Management Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarafms/v14-i4/23589 · Cited by 1
Analysing motivations of Ponzi victims in West Bengal, India
Samanta, N. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04737-8 · Cited by 1
“…2006; Zaleskiewicz & Traczyk, 2020; Gärling & Svenson, 2009; Adam-kovi č & Marton č ik, 2017; Raval, 2018; Malimage, 2019), and ability of self-regulation (Holtfreter, Reisig, & Pratt, 2008; Holtfreter, Reisig, & Pratt, 2010; Flexon, Meldrum, & Piquero, 2016; Pratt, Holtfreter, & Reisig, 2014).”
Cocco, E., & Chopin, J. (2025) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2025.2492262 · Cited by 1
“…solutions, self-centeredness, and preference for physical activities—are more likely to engage in behaviors that expose them to danger and therefore more vulnerable to victimization in both physical (Schreck, 1999) and online contexts (Holt et al., 2020; Holtfreter et al., 2008; van Wilsem, 2013).”
Mears, D. P., & Cochran, J. C. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108149815.012 · Cited by 1
Understanding Victim-Offender Overlap Taxonomies: A Longitudinal Study
Golladay, K. A. (2018) · Cited by 1
Higgins, G. E., & Nicholson, J. A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-78440-3_20 · Cited by 1
Williams, C. (2010) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 1
Trusting the Con Man: The Role of Social Networks in the Diffusion of Fraud
Nash, R. (2013) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 1
The Effects of Low Self-Control, Unstructured Socializing, and Risky Behavior on Victimization
Wattanaporn, K. A. (2014) · Cited by 1
General Opportunity Victimization Theories
Reyns, B. W. (2017) · doi:10.1093/obo/9780195396607-0229 · Cited by 1
Moule, R. K. (2017) · doi:10.1093/obo/9780195396607-0211 · Cited by 1
Raj, M. (2017) · e-publications@bond (Bond University) · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- HOLTFRETER, K., REISIG, M. D., & PRATT, T. C.
- Affiliations
- Florida State University (US)
- Washington State University (US)
- Venue
- Criminology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2008-02
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 189-220
- ISSN
- 0011-1384 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-9125
- OpenAlex
- W2050792701
- Cited by
- 375
- References
- 108
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 48.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Criminology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Law › Cybercrime and Law Enforcement Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Keywords
- self-control theory, routine activity theory, fraud victimization, consumer fraud
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