Source regions and timescales for the delivery of water to the Earth

“By considering a binary with a Sun-like primary star and a Jupiter-sized planet in a circular orbit at 5 AU, and by adopting the model of Morbidelli et al. (2000), which is based on the assumption that water-carrying objects, in the Sun’s asteroid belt, were the primary source of the delivery of…”

“The transport of water is negligible compared to the total present amount of water (~ 5*10−4 MEarth , Lecuyer, Gillet & Robert, 1998; Morbidelli et al., 2000).”

“Solutions of the model obtained for a giant impact degassing event is in accord with the early delivery of extraterrestrial noble gases and other highly volatile elements (Morbidelli et al., 2000) to the Earth soon after the giant impact (later than 30–40 Myr after solar system formation, e.”

“Whether impactors are volatile-rich or not determines the extent of replenishment, an issue that has long been debated for late accretion 114–119 .”

“…of the formation and early evolution of planetary systems, icy planetesimals, icy pebbles, or cometary objects may deliver water to rocky planets (Morbidelli et al. 2000; Raymond et al. 2004; Nagasawa et al. 2007; Woitke et al. 2009a,b) and also to the innermost part of the remaining disk…”

“It is possible that habitability could be restored to planets desiccated by the pre-main sequence phase if late volatile delivery occurs (Morbidelli et al. 2000).”

“Whilst this might help to deliver volatiles to any planets that formed in that inner region (e.g. Owen & Bar-Nun, 1995; Morbidelli et al., 2000; Horner et al., 2009), it would most likely render them uninhabitable at the current epoch.”

“However, dynamical modelling of early solar system evolution (Morbidelli et al., 2000) indicates that Earth’s feeding zone extended with time to larger heliocentric distances, so that during the late accretionary stage our planet was impacted mostly by carbonaceous asteroids and comets.”

“Morbidelli et al. (2000) argues that during the formation of the main asteroid belt the bodies that migrated from this belt could deliver to the Earth even more water than comets.”

“Estimates from our experiments (Supplementary Discussion 11) show 6–23(5) mol% SiH 4 can be produced, and, therefore, it is important to consider.”

“Although relatively water-poor in comparison with comets, asteroids have also been suggested as the primary source of water on Earth due to their higher probability of collision (Morbidelli et al., 2000; Raymond et al., 2004).”

“…or at least icy material similar in composition to objects currently occupying the main asteroid belt, could have been a significant primordial source of terrestrial water (Morbidelli et al. 2000; Raymond et al. 2004; Raymond & Izidoro 2017; O’Brien et al. 2006, 2018, and references within).”

“Münker et al. (2000) found that lunar, terrestrial, and chondrite samples have identical relative abundances of 92 Zr.”

“These models imply that our planet’s water budget – and by extension, its suitability for life – is the result of the stochastic scattering of outer solar system material into the terrestrial planet forming region 6 .”

“We vary the water budgets, running sets of simulations with initial water masses of 1, 10, and 100 TO following the procedures of Morbidelli et al. (2000); Raymond et al. (2006); Chassefi`ere et al. (2012); Luger & Barnes (2015); do Amaral et al. (2022) in order to account for the possibility of…”

“( Morbidelli et al. 2000; O ’ Brien et al. 2018 ) .”

“Besides, most of our liquid water is now known to have reached Earth from outside and deposited in specific sites forming lagoons, rivers, seas, and oceans (Morbidelli et al. 2000; Daly and Schultz 2018).”

“It has long been appreciated that, in our Solar System, the condensation of water into solid material suitable for planetary accretion requires lower temperatures than expected in the region where Earth accreted.”

“…probability of asteroids with Earth, and the fact that the D/H ratio of water in carbonaceous chondrites matches the ratio in Earth's oceans (Morbidelli et al. 2000, Robert 2001) The formation of planetesimals—objects 1–1000 km in size that are large enough to have appreciable gravitational…”

“…case with volatiles arriving lately, after or during the disc’s dispersal is broadly accepted for the origin of volatiles in the inner Solar System (Morbidelli et al., 2000; Raymond et al., 2004; Obrien et al., 2006; Raymond et al., 2009; Walsh et al., 2011; Raymond and Izidoro, 2017; Ronco and de…”

“The blue line in the panel of z ∼ 13 shows the survey of Roman, but there is no survey ability of Roman for higher redshifts due to the wavelength limit. composition of planets and their atmospheres [e.g., 15,16], and plays an essential role in the origin of water on Earth [e.g., 17].”

“…originate from C-complex asteroids; dark, volatile-rich bodies that are hypothesized to have contributed to the delivery of water and prebiotic organic molecules to the terrestrial planet-forming region (e.g., Alexander et al., 2012; King et al., 2022; Morbidelli et al., 2000; Vacher et al., 2020).”

“Finally, the set of measurements carried out by MANTIS at near-Earth and mainbelt asteroids will by definition characterize objects in the solar system that pose threats to Earth or offer resources for human exploration, a final goal in the NASA Science Plan.”

“Heavy bombardment of meteorites may have contributed to the accretion of the mass of water on Earth [11].”

“Planetary scientists are beginning to understand how the exact sequence of accretion of the Earth led to critical aspects, such as its large percentage of water ( Morbidelli et. al. 2000; Drake and Righter 2002) and how the oblique-angled catastrophic origin of our moon accounts not only for the Earth’s unique spin-ax…”

“The above estimate of water delivery by cometary bodies to the Earth is greater than those by Morbidelli et al. (2000) and Levison et al. (2001), but is in accordance with the results by Chyba (1989) and Rickman et al. (2001).”

“Late(r) accretion: After the bulk of the planet’s mass has accreted and differentiated, water is delivered to its surface via impacting material scattered in from beyond the snow line (e.g., Morbidelli et al. 2000; Hartogh et al. 2011; Alexander et al. 2012; Marty 2012; Mandt et al. 2024).”

“The ν6 secular resonance has been demonstrated to be the main channel for the late-stage delivery of asteroids to Earth, after gas disk dissipation (Morbidelli et al. 2000; Ito & Malhotra 2006; Smallwood et al. 2017; Martin & Livio 2022).”

“Supporting Information Technical details of the data; whole ALMA channel maps of the CH3OH(22,1-31,2)A and CH3OH(71,7-61,6)A emissions.”

“potential water sources for objects orbiting inside the habitable zone (HZ). These water-rich bodies are either planetary embryos (Haghighipourand Raymond 2007) or asteroids as shown for our Earth in Morbidelli et al. (2000) and O’Brien et al. (2014). More recently, Bancelin et al. (2015) gave a statistical estimate o…”

“In addition, comets are predicted to introduce too much Ar and other noble gases to be consistent with the low terrestrial Ar/H2O ratio (Swindle & Kring 1997; Owen & Bar-Nun 1995; Morbidelli et al. 2000).”

“This process of redistribution of matter was strongly controlled by the gravitational influence of Jupiter and the other gas giant planets (Morbidelli et al. 2000; Lunine 2001; Raymond et al. 2004).”

“Formation of water worlds are thought to be a natural consequence of planetary accretion outside the “ice line” or “snow line”, where water ice is abundant (A. Morbidelli et al. 2000; B. Bitsch et al. 2019b), and therefore bodies with both rock and water ice should readily form.”

“In the research of water ice material in small celestial bodies, previous studies in several pieces of literature found that the water on Earth comes from asteroids [190,191].”

“…proved that Earth’s water was brought to its accretion zone by hydrated protoplanetary bodies from the outer regions of the asteroid belt (e.g., Morbidelli et al. 2000; O’Brien et al. 2014, 2018; Haghighipour & Winter 2016), and presented models to account for the small mass of Mars (Walsh et…”

“…for reaction 1 in planetary scale: either existence of water during the formation of carbide planets or the delivery of water rich materials at later stages of carbide planet formation, such as late veneer discussed for the Earth (Dreibus et al. 1987; Morbidelli et al. 2000; Wang & Becker 2013).”

“…composed mostly of silicate minerals, asteroids may have been important vectors for the delivery of water and organic materials to the early Earth (Morbidelli et al. 2000); recent measurements by the Rosetta spacecraft are inconsistent with a major cometary contribution (Altwegg et al. 2014)…”

“…de Jupiter, ils montrent aussi que comparé à la Terre ou Vénus, Mars a probablement absorbé une plus grande proportion des planétésimaux provenant de l’extérieur du système du fait de leur déstabilisation par les géantes gazeuses [Morbidelli et al., 2000; Lunine et al., 2003; Walsh et al., 2011].”

“The D/H ratio in several comets from the Oort cloud returned a value about twice that in Earth’s oceans, suggesting that comets delivered only ∼10% of that water (Morbidelli et al. 2000; Izidoro et al. 2013).”

“The water snow line occurs at a temperature of around 170 K (Hayashi 1981) and currently in our solar system is observed to be at a radius of 2.7 AU, within the asteroid belt (Abe et al. 2000; Morbidelli et al. 2000; Martin & Livio 2013b).”

“It appears likely that some fraction of A- and F-type stars build planetary systems replete with water-rich asteroids, the building blocks of habitable planets and potentially analogous to the parent bodies that supplied the bulk of water in Earth’s oceans (Morbidelli et al. 2000).”

“The simplest explanation is that these outgassed from the mantle (Drake 2000), but some researchers believe that late-stage accretion of meteorites and comets (e.g. Morbidelli et al. 2000), or micrometeorites (Gounelle et al. 2005) may have played the most important role.”

“The finding that the D/H ratio in comets was twice as high as terrestrial water suggested that comets could not have been an important source of Earth’s water and spawned a new generation of “wet accretion” models in which Earth’s water was brought in by the accretion of water-bearing planetesimals (e.g., Abe et al.,…”

“One major example of this is the Microwave Instrument for the Rosetta Orbiter (MIRO) which studied H2O isotopes of Jovian family comet 67/P [1] and demonstrated that the Deuterium to Hydrogen (D/H) isotope ratio was far from what conventional models of solar system evolution predicted [2].”

“It is believed that besides carbonaceous chondrites formed in the outer solar system as the main source of hydrated minerals delivered to Earth, enstatite chondrites from the inner solar system also contributed to the origin of Earth ́s water (Morbidelli et al., 2000; Marty, 2012; Piani et al., 2020).”

“Volatiles such as hydroxide and water (OH/H2O) are considered necessary components for any habitable world (e.g., Morbidelli et al. 2000).”

“…of volatiles from MBCs bears interest also because impacting volatile-rich asteroids may represent a better mechanism for delivering water to the early Earth than impacts of classical comets (Morbidelli et al. 2000) since the latter doesn’t seem to have a compatible deuterium-hydrogen ratio.”

“Visible slope variability has also been documented for C-complex near-Earth objects: (153591) 2001 SN263 (D = 1 km, Perna et al. 2013), where the slope varies from flat to strongly negative (their Fig.”

“The measurements of D/H ratio of some comets from the Oort cloud yielded asteroids were the main source of Earth’s water with ≤10% being delivered by comets [Morbidelli et al., 2000].”

“…to Jupiter’s mass. 2.77 22 erosion 75.2 A disk of planetesimals is modeled as a ring of 10000 asteroids with masses similar to main belt objects in the Solar System and each asteroid was assigned an initial water mass fraction (hereafter wmf) of 10% [Abe et al., 2000, Morbidelli et al., 2000].”

“First, the water may originate from the meteorites that formed the craters observed at the surface (e.g. Morbidelli et al., 2000).”

“It has been asserted that the asteroid belt represents a more efficient source of water, in the sense that impact probabilities from sources in the asteroid belt are higher than from corresponding sources in the Kuiper belt (Morbidelli et al. 2000).”

“At the present time, most authors (e.g., Lunine et al. 2003, Morbidelli et al. 2000, and Petit et al. 2001) consider that the outer asteroid belt was the main source of the delivery of water to the terrestrial planets.”