Cited by 369Hallucinations in medical conditionsSchizophrenia research and treatmentMental Health and Psychiatry

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Reality testing and auditory hallucinations: A signal detection analysis

Bentall, R. P., Slade, P. D.·1985·British Journal of Clinical Psychology

DOI 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1985.tb01331.x

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Abstract

The hypothesis that hallucinators are deficient in the metacognitive skill of reality testing was tested using the methodology of signal detection theory. In Expt 1 undergraduate subjects scoring high or low on a scale measuring predisposition to hallucination were tested on an auditory signal detection task. High scorers on the scale were found to differ from low scorers on a measure of perceptual bias but not on a measure of sensitivity. In Expt 2 a similar methodology was used with hallucinating and non-hallucinating schizophrenic patients, with similar results. These results support the hypothesis that hallucinators or subjects highly disposed towards hallucination are deficient in reality testing and are therefore prone to identify imaginary events as real.

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Crossref · 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1985.tb01331.x

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Self-citation
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Background
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BackgroundMethodInfluential
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BackgroundMethod
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BackgroundMethod
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BackgroundMethodInfluential
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Self-citation
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Background
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Background
Overly strong priors for socially meaningful visual signals in psychosis pronenessPreprint
Stuke, H., Kress, E., Weilnhammer, V. A., Sterzer, P., & Schmack, K. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/473421 · Cited by 6
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Background
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Self-citation
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Brébion, G., Stephan‐Otto, C., Ochoa, S., Cuevas‐Esteban, J., Núñez, A., & Usall, J. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.102823 · Cited by 5
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Background
Intended versus intentional action
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EL PROCESO DE CONTROL DE LA REALIDAD EN SUJETOS CON PROPENSIÓN A LA ALUCINACIÓN
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Traitement cognitif du contenu verbal halluciné : tâche de décision lexicale
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Confidence in visual detection, familiarity and recollection judgments is preserved in schizophrenia spectrum disorder
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Reality monitoring in a hypothetically hallucination-prone population
Frutos, J. M. L., Salvador, M. I. C., & Ruiz-Vargas, J. M. (1999) · Psychology in Spain · Cited by 4
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Estradiol driven change in hallucination proneness across the menstrual cycle as studied with a white noise paradigm
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Clinical Pathologies and Unusual Experiences
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Self-citation
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Chen, J., Wei, D., Yang, L.-Q., Wu, X., Ma, W., Fu, Q., Wang, H., Liu, G., Deng, Z., Ye, M., et al. (2014) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2014.11.016 · Cited by 3
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Harper, K. M. (2019) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/j997-0s97 · Cited by 3
Speech errors and hallucinations in schizophrenia – no difference?
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“Although there were no significant changes observed in behavioral performance on the Auditory Signal detection (ASD) task, the patient demonstrated a clear external bias on both days 1 and 2, which has been routinely observed in schizophrenia patients when compared to healthy controls.[20,21] The patient also reported…”
Background
Hallucinations
Franck, N., & Thibaut, F. (2004) · Encyclopédie médico-chirurgicale. Psychiatrie · doi:10.1016/s0246-1072(03)00104-4 · Cited by 4
Estado actual de la investigación psicológica en las alucinaciones auditivas
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Are verbal hallucinations secondary to disordered thinking?
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Activation of the inner critic increases speech illusions and negative emotional valence of perceived speech
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“To measure hallucination-proneness, the Launay–Slade Hallucination Scale-Revised was employed (LSHS-R; Bentall & Slade, 1985).”
Refining mechanistic models of hallucinations for enhanced translatability
Buck, J., Iigaya, K., & Horga, G. (2025) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-025-03773-x · Cited by 2
“…patients with hallucinations display increased signal decisions in auditory detection tasks with stable statistics (e.g., probability of signal is maintained at 0.5 throughout the task [13, 46, 48, 69]) and voice hearers show increased ability to detect corrupted speech without prior exposure [95].”
Influential
Phenomenology of Voice-Hearing in Psychosis Spectrum Disorders: a Review of Neural Mechanisms
Cruz, L. N., Pozzo, J. D., Zar, T., & Hansen, M. C. (2019) · Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s40473-019-00196-z · Cited by 2
Neurocognitive Models of Auditory Verbal Hallucinations in Schizophrenia: A Review.
Panikratova, Y. R., & Лебедева, И. С. (2022) · Clinical Psychology and Special Education · doi:10.17759/cpse.2022110105 · Cited by 3
“In such studies, patients with AVH demonstrate a false-positive response bias but not impaired perceptual sensitivity [14; 18; 24].”
Background
“Severe Anemia: A Case Report of an Uncommon Precipitant of Schizophrenia Relapse”
Anuroj, K., Chongbanyatcharoen, S., & Chiencharoenthanakij, R. (2023) · Journal of Blood Medicine · doi:10.2147/jbm.s407722 · Cited by 2
Misperceptions are the price for facilitation in object recognition
Król, M. E., & El‐Deredy, W. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2011.553596 · Cited by 2
[Polish version of the Revised Hallucination Scale (RHS) by Morrison et al. Its factor analysis and the prevalence of hallucinatory-like experiences among healthy participants].
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Childhood Imaginary Companion and Schizotypy in Adolescents and Adults
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Mindfulness training and false perception in individuals with high unusual experiences
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“One explanation of hallucinations suggests that they occur due to deficits in metacognitive skills such as reality monitoring (Bentall, 1990; Bentall & Slade, 1985), which have been found to be affected in those with high unusual experience scores (Tsakanikos & Reed, 2005a).”
Background
Medidas psicológicas en relación con experiencias alucinatorias y experiencias aparicionales
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Auditory Susceptibility in Hallucinating Schizophrenic Patients
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The muse in the machine: Creativity, anomalous experiences and mental health
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Sleep-Related Hallucinations
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“These findings were replicated by other studies where a considerable proportion of students reported hearing a voice speaking their thoughts aloud [11–13].”
Result

Authors: Bentall, R. P., & Slade, P. D.
Affiliations: University of Liverpool (GB)
Corresponding author: Bentall, R. P.
ORCID: Bentall, R. P.
Venue: British Journal of Clinical Psychology
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 1985-09
Volume: 24
Issue: 3
Pages: 159-169
ISSN: 0144-6657 (ISSN-L)
2044-8260
DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1985.tb01331.x
OpenAlex: W1987901560
Cited by: 362
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 17
FWCI: 8.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 9445 d)
Locations: British Journal of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Aberystwyth University
Bangor University
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hallucinations in medical conditions
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Mental Health and Psychiatry
Keywords: reality testing, auditory hallucinations, signal detection theory, metacognition, perceptual bias, sensitivity, schizophrenia, hallucination proneness
MeSH terms: Adult, Auditory Perception, Decision Making, Ego, Hallucinations, Humans, Imagination, Male, Reality Testing, Schizophrenic Psychology

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Reality testing and auditory hallucinations: A signal detection analysis

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