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Reality testing and auditory hallucinations: A signal detection analysis
Abstract
The hypothesis that hallucinators are deficient in the metacognitive skill of reality testing was tested using the methodology of signal detection theory. In Expt 1 undergraduate subjects scoring high or low on a scale measuring predisposition to hallucination were tested on an auditory signal detection task. High scorers on the scale were found to differ from low scorers on a measure of perceptual bias but not on a measure of sensitivity. In Expt 2 a similar methodology was used with hallucinating and non-hallucinating schizophrenic patients, with similar results. These results support the hypothesis that hallucinators or subjects highly disposed towards hallucination are deficient in reality testing and are therefore prone to identify imaginary events as real.
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“There is evidence that people prone to hallucinations experience a perceptual bias which increases the influence of prior (top-down) information over bottom-up sensory input (“over-weighted priors”). 26 , 31 , 32”
From Towards an Integrative Account of Potential Mechanisms Mediating the Path From Sleep Dysfunction to Hallucinations (2025) · cites this paper as [31]
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Auditory and visual hallucinations in university students
Feelgood, S. R., & Rantzen, A. J. (1994) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90034-5 · Cited by 43
Li, C.-S. R., Chen, M.-C., Yang, Y., Chen, M.-C., & Tsay, P. (2002) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/s0920-9964(01)00203-1 · Cited by 42
Auditory false perceptions are mediated by psychosis risk factors
Barkus, E., Smallman, R. P., Royle, N. A., Barkus, C., Lewis, S. W., & Rushe, T. (2010) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2010.530472 · Cited by 41
“Similar studies have reported significant differences in decision-making bias rather than sensitivity on perceptual signal detection tasks in psychosis prone individuals (Barkus et al., 2007; Bentall & Slade, 1985; Brébion et al., 2005; Rankin & O’Carroll, 1999).”
Stuke, H., Kress, E., Weilnhammer, V. A., Sterzer, P., & Schmack, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.583637 · Cited by 41
“Hallucinating individuals commonly hear their voices speaking to themselves or commenting about their own actions”; Bentall and Slade, 1985).”
BackgroundResultHearing voices as a feature of typical and psychopathological experience
Toh, W. L., Moseley, P., & Fernyhough, C. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-021-00013-z · Cited by 47
Preti, A., Bonventre, E., Ledda, V., Петретто, Д. Р., & Masala, C. (2007) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e31802f205e · Cited by 40
“The Launay-Slade Hallucination Scale (LSHS) was designed to measure predisposition to hallucinations in healthy individuals (Bentall and Slade, 1985; Launay and Slade, 1981).”
MethodLimitations of the symptom-oriented approach to psychiatric research
Mojtabai, R., & Rieder, R. O. (1998) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.173.3.198 · Cited by 41
Vallath, S., Luhrmann, T. M., Bunders, J., Ravikant, L., & Gopikumar, V. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00528 · Cited by 42
“A popular theory notes that dysfunctions in memory and reasoning create difficulties in source monitoring (4) and reality monitoring (5, 6).”
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“For example, a low threshold-level of perceptual information taken as evidence that information is external would produce externalization errors (Bentall & Slade, 1985).”
BackgroundInfluentialCognitive models of verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia
Hoffman, R. E. (1987) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00023967 · Cited by 39
Auditory hallucinations in normal child populations
Pearson, D., Burrow, A., FitzGerald, C., Green, K., Lee, G., & Wise, N. (2001) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00145-8 · Cited by 37
Deconstructing the concept of ‘schizophrenia’
Bentall, R. P. (1993) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.3109/09638239309003768 · Cited by 38
“What kind of attributions would be made, then, by deluded patients on an attributional style measure which did not require an effortful consideration of blame of the sort required when completing self-ratings on the ASQ? In order to answer this question we employed a ‘pragmatic inference task’ designed by Winters and…”
MethodSelf-citationShame and the psychosis continuum: A systematic review of the literature
Carden, L. J., Saini, P., Seddon, C., Watkins, M., & Taylor, P. J. (2018) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12204 · Cited by 45
Honey, G. D., O'Loughlin, C., Turner, D. C., Pomarol‐Clotet, E., Corlett, P. R., & Fletcher, P. C. (2005) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300846 · Cited by 37
“…volunteers who do not experience hallucinations, but who score highly on psychometric scales used to identify hallucination-prone subjects in nonclinical populations (Bentall and Slade, 1985; Laroi et al, 2004; Rankin and O’Carroll, 1995) suggesting that such a bias is unlikely to be state related.”
BackgroundBrébion, G., Ohlsen, R. I., Bressan, R. A., & David, A. S. (2012) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329171200075x · Cited by 36
“Hallucinations, both clinical and non-clinical, have been linked to abnormal decision bias in acoustic signal detection tasks, resulting in increased rates of false detections of the signal (Bentall & Slade, 1985 ; Rankin & O’Carroll, 1995 ; Barkus et al. 2007 ; Varese et al. 2011).”
BackgroundResultPrevalence and dimensionality of hallucination-like experiences in young adults
Preti, A., Sisti, D., Rocchi, M., Siddi, S., Cella, M., Masala, C., Петретто, Д. Р., & Carta, M. G. (2014) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.01.015 · Cited by 41
“, “true/false”), but it was modified to account for different intensities replacing the binary choice with a fivepoint Likert scale [29].”
BackgroundIs auditory imagery defective in patients with auditory hallucinations?
EVANS, C. L., McGuire, P. K., & David, A. S. (2000) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291799001555 · Cited by 36
“Overall, the results of studies in this area have been inconsistent, and have tended to rely on subjective data (Roman & Landis, 1945; Heilbrun et al. 1983; Bentall & Slade, 1985).”
ResultReed, P., Wakefield, D., Harris, J., Parry, J. E., Cella, M., & Tsakanikos, E. (2007) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.07.005 · Cited by 36
Hoskin, R., Hunter, M. D., & Woodruff, P. W. R. (2013) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12048 · Cited by 37
Personality Traits and Reality-Testing Abilities, Controlling for Vividness of Imagery
Kunzendorf, R. G., Moran, C., & Gray, R. (1995) · Imagination Cognition and Personality · doi:10.2190/b76e-mj9e-07av-kakk · Cited by 35
Seeing words that are not there: Detection biases in schizotypy
Tsakanikos, E., & Reed, P. (2005) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466505x28757 · Cited by 35
Self-monitoring in speech production: effects of verbal hallucinations and negative symptoms
Leudar, I., Thomas, P., & Johnston, M. (1994) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700027902 · Cited by 34
Ruiz-Castañeda, P., Molina, E. S., Aguirre-Loaiza, H., & Daza, M. T. (2022) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-022-00428-z · Cited by 35
“…was found to be associated with stronger psychotic experiences, as well as greater false recognition of auditory signals and words (Rankin & O’Carroll, 1995), suggesting that decreased discrimination is a characteristic of positive psychotic phenomena (Bentall & Slade, 1985; Rossi et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMoseley, P., Fernyhough, C., & Ellison, A. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.07.032 · Cited by 36
Alemán, A., Böcker, K. B. E., & de Haan, E. H. F. (1999) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00270-0 · Cited by 33
Cognitive therapy for auditory hallucinations: A theory-based approach
Morrison, A. P., & Renton, J. C. (2001) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/s1077-7229(01)80020-1 · Cited by 32
Bortolon, C., Seillé, J., & Raffard, S. (2017) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2017.1387524 · Cited by 36
“The Launay–Slade hallucination scale (LSHS-R).”
MethodAuditory Aspects of Auditory Imagery
Hubbard, T. L. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5879-1_4 · Cited by 31
A qualitative analysis of sensory phenomena induced by perceptual deprivation
Lloyd, D. M., Lewis, E., Payne, J., & Wilson, L. (2012) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-011-9233-z · Cited by 30
Moseley, P., Alderson-Day, B., Common, S., Dodgson, G., Lee, R., Mitrenga, K., Moffatt, J., & Fernyhough, C. (2022) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026211059802 · Cited by 30
(2006) · Cited by 29
Jumping to perceptions and to conclusions: Specificity to hallucinations and delusions
Bristow, E., Tabraham, P., Smedley, N., Ward, T., & PETERS, E. R. (2014) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2014.02.004 · Cited by 30
“Ba was calculated as in previous studies of reality discrimination (Bentall and Slade, 1985; Rankin and O'Carroll, 1995; Böcker et al., 2000) Table 3 Correlations between auditory (Ba) and visual (Bv) perceptual biases and SAPS hallucination scores.”
MethodMoseley, P., Alderson‐Day, B., Ellison, A., Jardri, R., & Fernyhough, C. (2016) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2015.00515 · Cited by 31
“…experience AVHs, compared to individuals with the same diagnosis who do not experience AVHs, and to healthy controls, are more likely to misattribute self-generated speech in source memory tasks (Stephane et al., 2010) or signal detection tasks (Bentall and Slade, 1985; Brookwell et al., 2013).”
BackgroundUsing Acceptance and Commitment Therapy With People With Psychosis: A Case Study
Bloy, S., Oliver, J. E., & Morris, E. (2011) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/1534650111420863 · Cited by 32
“…that, rather than being a disease that was either dichotomously present or not, psychotic symptoms can be envisaged on a continuum, with people in the “normal” population also reporting psychotic-like symptoms (Bentall & Slade, 1985; Cox & Cowling, 1989; Romme, Honig, Noorthoorn, & Escher, 1992).”
BackgroundTo Treat or Not to Treat: Responding to Psychotic Experiences
Oh, H. Y., DeVylder, J., & Chen, F. (2014) · The British Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1093/bjsw/bct199 · Cited by 33
“In other words, an auditory hallucination is the abnormal development of inner speech (Fernyhough, 2004), which occurs when a mental event is misattributed to an external source (Bentall and Slade, 2011).”
BackgroundDo Positive Schizotypal Symptoms Predict False Perceptual Experiences in Nonclinical Populations?
Tsakanikos, E., & Reed, P. (2005) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000188974.44468.92 · Cited by 29
“These findings replicate and extend past evidence, in the visual modality, that hallucinations, as well as psychometrically defined proneness to hallucinations, are linked to a bias toward believing that an auditory stimulus is present in the absence of such a stimulus (Bentall and Slade, 1985; Rankin and O’Carroll, 1…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe role of metacognition and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in psychosis: an analogue study
Hagen, K., Solem, S., Opstad, H. B., Hansen, B. K. A., & Hagen, R. (2017) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1392-1 · Cited by 29
“The dependent variables used in the regressions were PS and LSHS-R.”
MethodInfluentialSuggestibility and signal detection performance in hallucination-prone students
Alganami, F. H. A. F. H., Varese, F., Wagstaff, G. F., & Bentall, R. P. (2017) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2017.1294056 · Cited by 30
“…misattribution of internally generated cognitive events to sources other than the self (e.g., Beck & Rector, 2003; Bentall, Baker, & Havers, 1991; Bentall & Slade, 1985a; Choong, Hunter, & Woodruff, 2007; Morrison & Haddock, 1997; Rankin & O’Carroll, 1995; Varese, Barkus, & Bentall, 2011, 2012;…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationVisual memory errors in schizophrenic patients with auditory and visual hallucinations
Brébion, G., David, A. S., Ohlsen, R. I., JONES, H. M., & Pilowsky, L. S. (2007) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s135561770707107x · Cited by 27
Selective pair recognition memory impairment with no response bias in schizophrenia
Luck, D., Montoya, A. G., Menear, M., et al. (2009) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.06.037 · Cited by 26
“In light of the previous literature (Bentall and Slade, 1985; Rankin and O'Carroll,1995; Ishigaki and Tanno,1999; Ragland et al., 2003; Brebion et al., 1999, 2000, 2005), correlations were performed with delusions, hallucinations and thought disorders.”
BackgroundInfluentialWright, A. C., Nelson, B., Fowler, D. G., & Greenwood, K. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.102847 · Cited by 27
“SDT studies have demonstrated that anomalous experiences are associated with perceptual signal detection biases (Barkus et al., 2010; Bentall & Slade, 1985; Kok, Kouider, Lange, & Supe, 2015; Mussgay & Hertwig, 1990).”
BackgroundMethodBortolon, C., & Raffard, S. (2014) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.10.011 · Cited by 29
“Delusions Inventory short form (PDI-21 [25]) and the LSHS [26].”
BackgroundThe effect of arousal on auditory threat detection and the relationship to auditory hallucinations
Dudley, R. E. J., Dodgson, G., Sarll, G., Halhead, R., Bolas, H., & McCarthy‐Jones, S. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.02.002 · Cited by 28
Thomas, N., Bless, J. J., Alderson‐Day, B., Bell, I., Cella, M., Craig, T., Delespaul, P., Hugdahl, K., Laloyaux, J., Larøi, F., et al. (2018) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sby103 · Cited by 25
Ishigaki, T., & Tanno, Y. (1999) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1046/j.1440-1819.1999.00586.x · Cited by 25
“However, some weaknesses with the Bentall and Slade (1985) study are pointed out.”
BackgroundJumping to conclusions and perceptions in early psychosis: Relationship with delusional beliefs
Colbert, S., PETERS, E. R., & Garety, P. A. (2010) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546800903495684 · Cited by 24
Koychev, I., Barkus, E., Ettinger, U., Killcross, S., Roiser, J. P., Wilkinson, L., & Deakin, B. (2011) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881111414450 · Cited by 24
“A similar pattern has been observed in healthy volunteers in association with high scores on questionnaire ratings of hallucinatory proneness or positive schizotypy (Barkus et al., 2007; Bentall and Slade, 1985; Rankin and O’Carroll, 1995).”
BackgroundResultFovet, T., Orlov, N. D., Dyck, M., Allen, P., Mathiak, K., & Jardri, R. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00103 · Cited by 25
“Based on signal detection theory (SDT), it was suggested that patients with schizophrenia and AVHs show a shift in the decision criterion (the point at which a person decides they perceive a stimulus) (52).”
BackgroundSiddi, S., Ochoa, S., Larøi, F., Cella, M., Raballo, A., Saldivia, S., Quijada, Y., Laloyaux, J., Rocha, N., Lincoln, T. M., et al. (2018) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sby156 · Cited by 25
Auditory hallucinations, inner speech, and the dominant hemisphere
Flor-Henry, P. (1986) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00046860 · Cited by 23
Krishnan, R. R., Kraus, M., & Keefe, R. S. E. (2011) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2011.02203.x · Cited by 24
“In a task in which participants with schizophrenia were required to detect an acoustic signal randomly presented against a noise background, those with auditory hallucinations were similar in their perceptual sensitivity to those without hallucinations, but differed in their response bias in that they were more willin…”
BackgroundLes expériences réputées psychotiques dans la population générale : essai de problématisation
Évrard, R. (2010) · Annales Médico-psychologiques revue psychiatrique · doi:10.1016/j.amp.2010.01.008 · Cited by 21
Hallucinations and Delusions in Children and Adolescents
Larøi, F., der Linden, M. V., & Goëb, J.-L. (2006) · Current Psychiatry Reviews · doi:10.2174/157340006778699756 · Cited by 23
Brébion, G., Larøi, F., & der Linden, M. V. (2010) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803391003596397 · Cited by 22
Chhabra, H., Sowmya, S., Sreeraj, V. S., Kalmady, S. V., Shivakumar, V., Amaresha, A. C., Narayanaswamy, J. C., & Venkatasubramanian, G. (2016) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2016.08.006 · Cited by 24
Psychosis-like experiences in the general population: An exploratory factor analysis
Bradbury, D. A., Stirling, J., Cavill, J., & Parker, A. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.035 · Cited by 21
Context binding in schizophrenia: Effects of clinical symptomatology and item content
Diaz-Asper, C. M., Malley, J. D., Genderson, M., Apud, J. A., & Elvevåg, B. (2008) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2007.02.018 · Cited by 24
“This so-called external misattribution bias has been theorized to underlie the development of hallucinations in schizophrenia (Bentall and Slade, 1985; Bentall, 1990).”
BackgroundSchlier, B., Winkler, K., Jaya, E. S., & Lincoln, T. M. (2017) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-017-9871-8 · Cited by 20
“In the present study, a validated German version of the LSHS-R was used, for which good reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.83–0.87) and an acceptable criterion and construct validity has been shown (Lincoln et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSiddi, S., Ochoa, S., Farreny, A., Brébion, G., Larøi, F., Cuevas‐Esteban, J., Haro, J. M., Stephan‐Otto, C., & Preti, A. (2018) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1741 · Cited by 20
“To account for different intensities of responding, the original binary choice (i.e., “true/false”; Launay & Slade, 1981) was replaced with a 5‐point Likert scale (Bentall & Slade, 1985).”
MethodCounterfactual cognition and psychosis: adding complexity to predictive processing accounts
Rappe, S., & Wilkinson, S. (2022) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2022.2054789 · Cited by 20
“We end up with a view that looks rather like the influential reality monitoring accounts introduced in the 1980ʹs (Bentall & Slade, 1985).”
BackgroundReality-monitoring deficits and visual hallucinations in schizophrenia
Mondino, M., Dondé, C., Lavallé, L., Haesebaert, F., & Brunelin, J. (2019) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.08.010 · Cited by 23
“Alternative explanations for the increased externalization bias independently of the vividness of mental images would be that patients with V + AH associate less cognitive operations information to imagined events [29] or display greater deficits in the ability to compare imagined and real events [30].”
BackgroundLanguage process and hallucination phenomenology
Alpert, M. (1986) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00046811 · Cited by 20
The Need to Integrate Neuropsychological and Experimental Schizophrenia Research
Serper, M. R., & Harvey, P. D. (1994) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/20.1.1 · Cited by 19
Verbal hallucinations in normals, V: perceived reality characteristics
Barrett, T. R., & Caylor, M. R. (1998) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00014-2 · Cited by 19
Hommes, J. E., Krabbendam, L., Versmissen, D., Kircher, T. T. J., van Os, J., & van Winkel, R. (2011) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291711001152 · Cited by 20
“…several studies have found that healthy individuals who experienced hallucinations displayed more reality or action-monitoring errors compared to normal subjects who had not experienced hallucinations (Bentall & Slade, 1985 ; Rankin & O’Carroll, 1995 ; Laroi et al. 2004 ; Debbané et al. 2009).”
BackgroundMethodCella, M., Kelly, T., & Reed, P. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.11.007 · Cited by 17
Perceptual biases and positive schizotypy: The role of perceptual load
Tsakanikos, E. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.04.004 · Cited by 17
“These findings replicate and extend evidence from studies that employed auditory stimuli (Bentall & Slade, 1985; Rankin & O’Carroll, 1995).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAcoustic salience in emotional voice perception and its relationship with hallucination proneness
Castiajo, P., & Pinheiro, A. P. (2021) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-021-00864-2 · Cited by 17
Grant, P. S., Balser, M., Munk, A. J. L., Linder, J., & Hennig, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00135 · Cited by 17
Misattribution Models (II): Source Monitoring in Hallucinating Schizophrenia Subjects
Woodward, T. S., & Menon, M. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4121-2_10 · Cited by 21
“…reflect pure inner and outer sources, most studies include only one internal and one external source (Baker & Morrison, 1998; Bentall et al., 1991; Bentall & Slade, 1985; Ensum & Morrison, 2003; Johns & McGuire, 1999; Larøi et al., 2004; Morrison & Haddock, 1997; Rankin & O'Carroll, 1995; Seal et…”
BackgroundNormalizing psychotic symptoms
Garrett, M., Stone, D., & Turkington, D. (2006) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1348/147608306x96947 · Cited by 17
Delusions of reference: A new theoretical model
Startup, M., Bucci, S., & Langdon, R. A. (2009) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546800902864229 · Cited by 21
“Some preliminary empirical support for this aspect of our model comes from a study by Bucci, Startup, Wynn, Heathcote, et al. (2008), which was based on the signal detection study of auditory verbal hallucinations conducted by Bentall and Slade (1985).”
A Psychological Model for Verbal Auditory Hallucinations
Garcelán, S. P. (2004) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 18
A bias-minimising measure of the influence of head orientation on perceived gaze direction
Balsdon, T., & Clifford, C. W. G. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep41685 · Cited by 16
Stroke with supernumerary phantom limb: case study, review of literature and pathogenesis
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“An increasing number of recent studies report that hallucination-prone patients have difficulties in discriminating between an internally generated, imagined event and an externally presented, real event (51,52).”
BackgroundThe distortion of reality perception in schizophrenia patients, as measured in Virtual Reality.
Sorkin, A., Weinshall, D., & Peled, A. (2008) · PubMed · Cited by 16
Verbal hallucinations also occur in normals
Posey, T. B. (1986) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00046951 · Cited by 16
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Moran, O., Larsson, A. B., & McHugh, L. (2021) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2021.06.004 · Cited by 18
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Psychological treatment of positive schizophrenic symptoms
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Testing a model of auditory hallucinations: the role of negative emotions and cognitive resources
Laloyaux, J., Keyser, F. D., Pinchard, A., Libera, C. D., & Larøi, F. (2019) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2019.1629895 · Cited by 12
“In the context of AH, the signal detection bias can be measured by using an auditory signal detection paradigm – originally designed by Bentall and Slade (1985).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLuzón, O., Harrop, C. E., & Nolan, F. (2009) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465809990191 · Cited by 14
When Believing is Seeing: The Role of Predictions in Shaping Visual Perception
Król, M. E., & El‐Deredy, W. (2011) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.559587 · Cited by 13
“Shift in criterion was investigated as a possible cause of hallucinations also by Bentall and Slade (1985), Ishigaki and Tanno (1999), and Li, Chen, Yang, Chen, and Tsay (2002).”
BackgroundGebhardt, S., Grant, P. S., von Georgi, R., & Huber, M. (2008) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.03.042 · Cited by 16
Exploring the perceptual biases associated with believing and disbelieving in paranormal phenomena
Simmonds-Moore, C. A. (2014) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2014.06.004 · Cited by 14
“Where a stimulus is actually presented, more false alarms occur in addition to hits (Bentall & Slade, 1985).”
Distinctiveness, unintendedness, location, and nonself attribution of verbal hallucinations
Junginger, J. (1986) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00046926 · Cited by 13
Strawson, W., Wang, H.-T., Quadt, L., Sherman, M. T., Larsson, D. E. O., Davies, G., Mckeown, B., Silva, M., Fielding-Smith, S. F., Bibby-Jones, A.-M., et al. (2021) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyab093 · Cited by 14
“Patients with psychosis, and even hallucination-prone non-clinical individuals, tend to over-report the presence of auditory targets (exhibit a liberal response bias) yet typically show no reliable differences in perceptual sensitivity (Bentall and Slade, 1985; Barkus et al., 2007; Waters et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialAlderson‐Day, B., Moffatt, J. A., Lima, C. F., Krishnan, S., Fernyhough, C., Scott, S. K., Denton, S., Leong, Y. T., Oncel, A. D., Wu, Y.-L., et al. (2022) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niac002 · Cited by 14
“Various source-monitoring studies have demonstrated biases in auditory signal detection in people with hallucinations—often on white noise tasks (Bentall and Slade 1985a)—but facilitatory effects like those described by Teufel and colleagues have not typically been studied.”
BackgroundThe impact of negative affect on reality discrimination
Smailes, D., Meins, E., & Fernyhough, C. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.04.001 · Cited by 13
Verbal Transformation: Habituation or Spreading Activation?
Kaminska, Z., Pool, M., & Mayer, P. (2000) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1006/brln.1999.2181 · Cited by 13
Referential delusions of communication and reality discrimination deficits in psychosis
Bucci, S., Startup, M., Wynn, P., Heathcote, A., Baker, A., & Lewin, T. J. (2008) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466508x280952 · Cited by 13
“This result is similar to those of Bentall and Slade (1985) who found that, compared with controls, people with auditory hallucinations, and those prone to hallucinations, were more biased to report hearing a voice embedded in white noise.”
InfluentialFunctioning of the phonological loop in auditory hallucinations
Haddock, G., Slade, P. D., Prasaad, R., & Bentall, R. P. (1996) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(96)00006-2 · Cited by 13
Self-citationCognitive therapy, cartesianism and the moral order
Bracken, P. J., & Thomas, P. (1999) · European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling · doi:10.1080/13642539908400816 · Cited by 13
Examining the relationships between cognition and auditory hallucinations: A systematic review
Bell, A. P., Toh, W. L., Allen, P., Cella, M., Jardri, R., Larøi, F., Moseley, P., & Rossell, S. L. (2024) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00048674241235849 · Cited by 20
“A range of cognitive mechanisms have been implicated, including challenges in auditory signal detection and response biases (Bentall and Slade, 1985; McLachlan et al., 2013), source-monitoring (Bentall, 1990; Woodward et al., 2007), memory function (Brébion et al., 2020), attention modulation and…”
BackgroundWright, A. C., Fowler, D. G., & Greenwood, K. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022546 · Cited by 14
“…to this research and many studies using SDT have demonstrated that anomalous perceptual experiences are associated with perceptual signal detection biases (Bentall & Slade, 1985; Kok, Kouider, Lange, & Supe, 2015); bias towards stating that a stimulus was present when it was in-fact absent.”
BackgroundPsychopathologie et bases neurobiologiques des hallucinations auditives dans la schizophrénie
Bentaleb, L. A., Stip, É., & Beauregard, M. (2006) · Santé mentale au Québec · doi:10.7202/013033ar · Cited by 12
Developments in Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy for Persistent Psychotic Symptoms
Haddock, G., Sellwood, W., Tarrier, N., & Yusupoff, L. (1994) · Behaviour Change · doi:10.1017/s0813483900004472 · Cited by 12
Lesur, M. R., Bolt, E., Saetta, G., & Lenggenhager, B. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103223 · Cited by 13
Action simulation in hallucination-prone adolescents
Dahoun, T., Eliez, S., Chen, F., Badoud, D., Schneider, M., Larøi, F., & Debbané, M. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00329 · Cited by 11
“…lead to the misattribution of self-generated mental contents such as thoughts, memories or action to external sources in hallucination-prone adults (Bentall and Slade, 1985; Rankin and O’Carroll, 1995; Larøi et al., 2004, 2005), in adults with schizophrenia (Bentall et al., 1991; Rankin and…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bentall, R. P., & Slade, P. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Liverpool (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bentall, R. P.
- ORCID
- Bentall, R. P.
- Venue
- British Journal of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1985-09
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 159-169
- ISSN
- 0144-6657 (ISSN-L)
- 2044-8260
- OpenAlex
- W1987901560
- Cited by
- 362
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 8.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- British Journal of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Aberystwyth University
- Bangor University
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hallucinations in medical conditions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Mental Health and Psychiatry
- Keywords
- reality testing, auditory hallucinations, signal detection theory, metacognition, perceptual bias, sensitivity, schizophrenia, hallucination proneness
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Auditory Perception, Decision Making, Ego, Hallucinations, Humans, Imagination, Male, Reality Testing, Schizophrenic Psychology
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