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Eye-direction detection: A dissociation between geometric and joint attention skills in autism
Abstract
This study examined differences between children with autism and control children in the ability to follow another person's direction of gaze. In Expt 1, children with autism, Down syndrome and normally developing children were given two tasks. The gaze monitoring task (GMT) measured the child's spontaneous tendency to follow gaze direction in response to another person's change of head and eye movement. The visual perspective taking task (VPT) measured the child's ability to compute and report what the other person was looking at, when instructed to do so. Results showed that the majority of Down syndrome and normal children passed both tasks. In contrast, children with autism failed the GMT. This failure could not have been due to a lack of the relevant geometric skill, as they passed the VPT. This geometric skill was examined further in Expt 2, using a fine discrimination task which tested children's ability to discriminate degrees of change in the orientation of gaze. Children with autism were well within their developmental age level on this task. These results indicate a dissociation between (impaired) spontaneous monitoring and (intact) geometric analysis of gaze‐direction.
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“Leekam, Baron-Cohen, Perrett, Milders, and Brown (1997) found that the ability of children with ASD to discriminate degrees of change in the orientation of the gaze of an adult from carefully prepared and calibrated photographs was well matched to their developmental age level, corresponding to a displacement of the iris as small as 3.5 arcmin”
From Vision in autism spectrum disorders (2009) · cites this paper as Leekam et al. (1997)
In the citing paper
“although their ability to spontaneously follow the gaze of an experimenter was well below that of controls.”
From Vision in autism spectrum disorders (2009) · cites this paper as Leekam et al. (1997)
In the citing paper
“Their task was likely more challenging than that of Leekam et al. (1997) in that the gaze displacements were smaller.”
From Vision in autism spectrum disorders (2009) · cites this paper as Leekam et al. (1997)
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Gradual improvement in fine-grained sensitivity to triadic gaze after 6 years of age
Vida, M. D., & Maurer, D. M. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2011.08.009 · Cited by 46
Does Gaze Direction Modulate Facial Expression Processing in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder?
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“At the same time, it is also highly unlikely that children with ASD did not encode the gaze direction per se, because previous studies suggest that they have an intact ability to discriminate different eye gaze directions (Baron-Cohen et al., 1995; Leekam et al., 1997).”
BackgroundResultThinking, fast and slow on the autism spectrum
Brosnan, M., & Ashwin, C. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221132437 · Cited by 55
“The social context is of particular relevance, and other research has reported reduced spontaneous use of cues in social contexts in autism, such as for gaze processing (Leekam et al., 1997, 1998; Nation & Penny, 2008) and for theory of mind (Senju, 2012, 2013).”
BackgroundSchwarzkopf, S., Schilbach, L., Vogeley, K. T., & Timmermans, B. (2014) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.02.003 · Cited by 50
“It is well-known, that patients with ASD show high accuracy in level 1 perspective taking tasks (Baron-Cohen, 1989; David et al., 2010; Leekam et al., 1997; Leslie & Frith, 1988; Reed & Peterson, 1990; Hobson, 1984), but these tasks have not been used before to test whether level 1 perspective taking also occurs spont…”
InfluentialThe development of mentalistic gaze understanding
DOHERTY, M. J. (2006) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.434 · Cited by 45
“Leekam et al. (1997) found that only 45% of normal 4-year-olds passed a fine-grained gaze task requiring judgement of which of three rods was being fixated.”
BackgroundImitation, Theory of Mind and Related Activities in Autism
Brown, J. D., & Whiten, A. (2000) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361300004002006 · Cited by 43
“The well documented problems of joint attention (Hobson, 1984; Baron- Cohen, 1989; 1991; 1994; Mundy et al., 1990; Leekam et al., 1997) and emotion recognition and sharing (Hobson, 1986a; 1986b; Weeks and Hobson, 1987; Hobson et al., 1988a; 1988b; Ozonoff et al., 1990) may also be related to…”
BackgroundWallace, S., Coleman, M., Pascalis, O., & Bailey, A. (2006) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p5442 · Cited by 42
“Leekam et al (1997) found that individuals with autism were able to use a geometric analysis or feature-based strategy to judge eye-gaze direction when deciding which peg a person was looking at, but that they were impaired when spontaneously monitoring another's gaze.”
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Fast-mapping in young children with autism spectrum disorders
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Akechi, H., Senju, A., Kikuchi, Y., Tojo, Y., Osanai, H., & Hasegawa, T. (2011) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2011.01.013 · Cited by 44
Same or different? Theory of mind among children with and without disabilities
Smogorzewska, J., Szumski, G., & Grygiel, P. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202553 · Cited by 44
Tracking eye movements proves informative for the study of gaze direction detection in autism
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“High-functioning individuals can infer when a person is looking at them (Baron-Cohen, 1995 but see Howard et al., 2000) and identify what a person is looking at in a live situation (Baron-Cohen, 1989) or a photograph ( Leekam et al., 1997 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialde Belen, R. A. J., Pincham, H. L., Hodge, A., Silove, N., Sowmya, A., Bednarz, T. P., & Eapen, V. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04585-3 · Cited by 41
“Earlier research that used retrospective analysis of videos has observed that differences emerge later in development during preschool years [32, 33].”
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“132] and interaction effect [F (1, 36) = 0.”
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Ashwin, C., Ricciardelli, P., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2009) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470910802337902 · Cited by 36
“Additionally, children with autism are successfully able to determine the gaze direction of others towards target pegs (Leekam, Baron-Cohen, Brown, Perrett, & Milders, 1997 ), showing that some basic abilities for processing the gaze of others in ASC are intact.”
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“For example, ASD subjects have been found to be impaired in spontaneous gaze following ( Leekam et al. 1997 ).”
BackgroundAnticipation of Action Intentions in Autism Spectrum Disorder
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“…to gaze direction (Chawarska et al. 2003; Kemner et al. 2006; Kylliainen and Hietanen 2004; Senju et al. 2004; Vlamings et al. 2005), although this ability seems developmentally delayed until the child has reached a verbal mental age of around 48 months (Leekham et al. 1998; Leekham et al. 2000).”
BackgroundAtypical integration of social cues for orienting to gaze direction in adults with autism
Ashwin, C., Hietanen, J. K., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2015) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/2040-2392-6-5 · Cited by 40
“This includes being able to work out geometrically the direction of others’ gaze based on such aspects as their line of site [1,37,41].”
BackgroundSelf-citationA COMPUTATIONAL MODEL OF THE EMERGENCE OF GAZE FOLLOWING
CARLSON, E., & Triesch, J. (2004) · doi:10.1142/9789812702784_0010 · Cited by 32
“This matches a puzzling finding by Leekam et al.[9] demonstrating that autistics are often quite capable of following gaze if explicitly told to do so, although they may not exhibit the behavior normally.”
ResultAdaptation to vergent and averted eye gaze
Stiel, B., Clifford, C. W. G., & Mareschal, I. (2014) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/14.1.15 · Cited by 30
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Autistic adults show preserved normalisation of sensory responses in gaze processing
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“We also used the eye direction detection task (Leekam et al., 1997) to test individuals’ geometric understanding of gaze direction.”
MethodZhai, J., Li, X., Zhou, Y. F., Fan, L., Xia, W., Wang, X., Li, Y., Hou, M., Wang, J., & Wu, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1056051 · Cited by 39
“Up to 80% of environmental information is transmitted to the brain through vision (48), and visual processing is linked to social behaviors such as joint attention and imitation of others (49, 50).”
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Brief Report: Eye Direction Detection Improves with Development in Autism
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“…turns, pointing, gesturing, vocalizing, touching, handling, moving , showing, tapping, and placing the child's body in contact with the object (Carpenter et al. 2002; Hollich et al. 2000; Leekam et al. 1997; Leekam et al. 1998; Leekam et al. 2000; Mundy et al. 1986; Whalen and Schreibman 2003).”
BackgroundLakatos, G., Wood, L. J., Syrdal, D. S., Robins, B., Zaraki, A., & Dautenhahn, K. (2020) · Paladyn Journal of Behavioral Robotics · doi:10.1515/pjbr-2021-0007 · Cited by 27
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“In situations in which both adult communicative partners and toys are available, toddlers with DS tend to maintain eye contact with the communicative partner or engage solely with the communicative partner much longer than do mental age (MA) matched and receptive language-age (RLA) matched TD children or children with…”
Minshew, N. J., Johnson, C. R., & Luna, B. (2000) · International review of research in mental retardation · doi:10.1016/s0074-7750(00)80008-7 · Cited by 26
Gaze direction detection in autism spectrum disorder
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“Individuals with an ASD less spontaneously orient their gaze by following someone else’s (Leekam et al., 1997).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialImpaired representational gaze following in children with autism spectrum disorder
Congiu, S., Fadda, R., Doneddu, G., & Striano, T. (2016) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2016.06.008 · Cited by 24
Toward Improved Child–Robot Interaction by Understanding Eye Movements
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Embodying meaning: Insights from primates, autism, and Brentano
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“…on factors such as the direction of the head, the age and gender of participants, and whether the task involves spontaneous monitoring of gaze (Ashwin, Ricciardelli, & Baron-Cohen, 2009; Forgeot d’Arc et al., 2017; Leekam, Baron‐Cohen, Perrett, Milders, & Brown, 1997; Webster & Potter, 2008).”
Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Uono, S., Yoshimura, S., & Toichi, M. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00339 · Cited by 20
“For example, when an adult suddenly turns his/her eye gaze toward an object during an interaction, children with ASD are less likely to follow the gaze than are typically developing (TD) children (Leekam et al., 1997).”
BackgroundLampi, A. J., Fitzpatrick, P., Romero, V., Amaral, J. L., & Schmidt, R. C. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3698-3 · Cited by 26
Intensive interaction and autism: some theoretical concerns
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Children's use of the temporal dimension of gaze for inferring preference.
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“…have pointed out, the value of this skill for adaptive social interaction is underscored by the social impairments that children with autism and Asperger syndrome present, which are thought to be related to gaze-reading deficits (BaronCohen, 1995; Baron-Cohen et al., 1995; Leekam et al., 1997).”
BackgroundINVESTIGATING SOCIAL ATTENTION
Birmingham, E., Ristic, J., & Kingstone, A. F. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195315455.003.0010 · Cited by 20
Otizm Spektrum Bozukluğu Olan Çocukların Sosyal İletişim Becerileri ve Dil Gelişim Özellikleri
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“Importantly, work by Leekam and colleagues showed that reduced gaze following in ASD could not be explained by an underlying inability to discriminate the direction of another person’s gaze (Leekam et al., 1997), or to more global difficulties with disengaging and shifting attention from a central stimulus (Leekam, Lo…”
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A Statistical Physics Perspective to Understand Social Visual Attention in Autism Spectrum Disorder
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Multimodal Emotion Perception in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder by Eye Tracking Study
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Altered sense of gaze leading in autism
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Lack of implicit visual perspective taking in adult males with autism spectrum disorders
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“These differences in interpreting gaze may contribute to the joint attention deficits in ASD (Leekam et al., 1997; Leekam et al., 2000; Mundy et al., 1986).”
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Preschoolers' Perception of other People's Looking: Photographs and Drawings
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Gaze following in infancy: Five big questions that the field should answer
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Best friends: children use mutual gaze to identify friendships in others
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A Car Goes in the Garage Like a Can of Peas Goes in the Refrigerator
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“, 2000), although impairments in gaze direction detection do not always correspond with impairments in visual perspective taking (Leekam et al., 1997).”
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Can Asperger Syndrome Be Diagnosed at 26 Months Old? A Genetic High-Risk Single-Case Study
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Self-citationDifferences in the Judged Direction of Gaze From Heads Imaged in 3-D versus 2-D
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Neurophysiological correlates of visuospatial attention and the social dynamics of gaze processing
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Lack of motivation to share intentions: Primary deficit in autism?
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“However, in one study, children with ASD were able to trace the line of sight of another person – be it by less conventional strategies 77 .”
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“Regardless, his social interactions were profoundly affected, as witnessed through his gaze aversion during social interactions ( Dawson, Meltzoff, Osterling, Rinaldi, & Brown, 1998 ; Leekam, Baron-Cohen, Perrett, Milders, & Brown, 1997 ).”
Ellis, K., Lewington, P. V. R., Powis, L., Oliver, C., Waite, J., Heald, M., Apperly, I. A., Sandhu, P., & Crawford, H. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04449-9 · Cited by 14
The experience of isolation and loneliness in young adults with high-functioning autism
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Normal gaze processing in developmental prosopagnosia
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Gaze Perception Develops Atypically in Children with Autism
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“The task used photographic images of a man looking at one of three coloured poles, with various distances between these poles and with eye and head direction either concordant or discordant (see [12]).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialContingent Parental Reactivity in Early Socio-Emotional Development
Gergely, G., Koós, O., & Watson, J. S. (2010) · Cited by 8
Can Studies of Autism Teach us About Consciousness of the Physical and the Mental?
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“It is well-documented that children with ASD have difficulties with the intentional aspects of social and symbolic cues, rather than their directional properties and so the emphasis here is placed on non-directional, symbolic cues (Baron-Cohen et al. 1995; Leekam et al. 1997 ).”
BackgroundFace and Gaze Processing in Children with Autism
Kylliäinen, A. (2007) · Tampere University Institutional Repository (Tampere University) · Cited by 7
Predictability modulates neural response to eye contact in ASD
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“, 1994), but contradicts the findings of others (Baron-Cohen, 1989; Hobson, 1984; Leekam et al., 1997; Leslie & Frith, 1988; Reed & Peterson, 1990; Tan & Harris, 1991).”
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“These ideas were taken up by Leslie (1988) and Baron-Cohen (1995). Leslie claimed that specific innate mechanisms, Theory of Mind Modules (ToMM), develop Theory-of-Mind”
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Cultural Learning and Creation
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“For comparative theoretical views, see Lieberman (2002) and Pinker (2007).”
BackgroundTsukamoto, M., Wei, Y., Nagai, T., Kitahara, I., Takeuchi, K., & Yamamoto, J. (2023) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-023-09897-6 · Cited by 3
“For individuals with ASD who sometimes fail to use another person’s eye gaze (Leekam et al., 1997; Warreyn et al., 2005), using live video to see others’ perspectives might be more reliable than using eye gaze and might be faster and less effortful than assuming their position and orientation.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Leekam, S., Baron‐Cohen, S., Perrett, D., Milders, M., & Brown, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Kent (GB)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- University of St Andrews (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Leekam, Susan
- Venue
- British Journal of Developmental Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 77-95
- ISSN
- 0261-510X (ISSN-L)
- 2044-835X
- OpenAlex
- W2171357760
- Cited by
- 257
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 4.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- British Journal of Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, joint attention, visual perspective taking, Down syndrome, social cognition, children
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