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Cited by 827Autism Spectrum Disorder ResearchVisual perception and processing mechanismsFace Recognition and Perception

Vision in autism spectrum disorders

Open access
Simmons, David R., Robertson, Ashley E., McKay, Lawrie S., Toal, Erin, McAleer, Phil, Pollick, Frank E.·2009·Vision Research
DOI 10.1016/j.visres.2009.08.005
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Abstract

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are developmental disorders which are thought primarily to affect social functioning. However, there is now a growing body of evidence that unusual sensory processing is at least a concomitant and possibly the cause of many of the behavioural signs and symptoms of ASD. A comprehensive and critical review of the phenomenological, empirical, neuroscientific and theoretical literature pertaining to visual processing in ASD is presented, along with a brief justification of a new theory which may help to explain some of the data, and link it with other current hypotheses about the genetic and neural aetiologies of this enigmatic condition.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review synthesizes phenomenological, empirical, neuroscientific, and theoretical literature on visual processing in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), concluding that many findings are contradictory or contested while some local-processing advantages and atypical face/eye-gaze/colour/motion effects are relatively consistent. It proposes a neural noise/stochastic resonance account to link visual symptoms with genetic and neural aetiologies.

Key findings

  • Contrast sensitivity: no study with well-matched controls found poorer luminance-defined contrast sensitivity in ASD; one study found lower first-order static contrast thresholds in ASD (Bertone et al., 2005), and high-risk infants showed lower dynamic thresholds (McCleery et al., 2007), while second-order contrast thresholds were significantly higher in ASD (Bertone et al., 2003, 2005).
  • Motion coherence results are conflicting: Del Viva et al. (2006) found no overall difference; Spencer and O’Brien (2006) found higher thresholds in autism but not Asperger Syndrome, with autism thresholds 35.5% higher than typical controls and 26% higher than the Asperger group; Pellicano et al. (2005) found a highly significant difference.
  • Local visual processing advantages are reported: superior or equivalent Embedded Figures Test performance, Block Design Task peaks in 47% of an ASD sample versus 2% of typical participants (Caron et al., 2006), and generally superior visual search, possibly due to enhanced discrimination of target/distractor elements.
  • Face processing is mixed: evidence suggests less effective eye-region processing and atypical gaze/fixation, but no unequivocal face-specific deficit; object processing is generally equivalent, though Behrmann et al. (2006a) found more difficulty with fine exemplar-level object discriminations. Colour discrimination is impaired in ASD on chromatic tasks, with Franklin et al. (in press) estimating FM-100 performance comparable to children 3 years younger; Ludlow et al. (2006) found a 13% average reading-speed improvement with coloured overlays.

Methods

  • Design: comprehensive critical review of phenomenological, empirical, neuroscientific, and theoretical literature on visual processing in ASD, plus a brief justification of a new theory.
  • Data/sample: published studies spanning optometric issues, spatial vision, colour, depth/stereopsis, motion, biological motion, animacy, visuomotor control, faces/objects, visual search/attention, oculomotor function, change detection, and neuroimaging; no new primary sample is reported.
  • Analysis: narrative synthesis comparing study methods, stimuli, diagnostic rigor, and participant matching; proposes a neural noise/stochastic resonance model to explain hyper- and hyposensitivities, threshold variability, and some motion/colour/face findings.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: reviewed studies often have small samples, vague or variable diagnostic methods, poor matching, parental-report bias, uncontrolled eye movements contaminating EEG gamma-band findings, and methodological differences that likely explain contradictory results; many findings await replication, and ASD heterogeneity plus developmental change complicates generalization.
  • Stated in the paper: the review concludes that most data are contradictory or contested, “hard to say anything with certainty,” that no work has yet been done on stereopsis, and that a basic characterization of visual processing in ASD is still needed.
  • Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not describe a systematic search or formal quality appraisal; its proposed neural noise theory is presented as speculative in places and a full version is “in preparation,” so the theoretical synthesis is not yet empirically settled.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.visres.2009.08.005

Cites

443 of 443 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

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  • Findingcitation

    Sensory symptoms in ASD lessen with age.

    “(b) these symptoms lessen with age;”
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  • Findingcitation

    Particular sensory symptoms appear to be more common in ASD than in other developmental disorders.

    “These tell the broadly similar story that (a) particular sensory symptoms appear to be more common in ASD than in other developmental disorders;”
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  • Findingcitation

    Sensory symptoms are correlated with the severity of social symptoms of ASD, at least in children.

    “(c) these symptoms are correlated with the severity of social symptoms of ASD, at least in children (Kern et al., 2007).”
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    • cites Kern et al., 2007 source

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  • Findingcitation

    The authors found a strong correlation between sensory symptoms reported by members of the general public and their score on the AQ.

    “we have recently found a strong correlation between sensory symptoms reported by members of the general public and their score on the AQ which addresses some of the issues to do with third-party report (Robertson & Simmons, 2009).”
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    • cites Robertson & Simmons, 2009

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  • Findingnone given

    Large variability is reported in threshold data from ASD populations relative to both typical and developmentally delayed populations.

    “Another observation was the large variability reported in threshold data from ASD populations, relative to both typical and developmentally delayed populations.”
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    Findingnone given

    The size of the error bars in this field is always at least twice as large in the ASD data compared to the controls.

    “One of the curses in this field is the size of the error bars, which always seem to be at least twice as large in the ASD data compared to the controls.”
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    Premisecitation

    In Heaton et al. (2008), both autism and MLD groups were impaired on the colour discrimination task relative to TD controls, although not with respect to each other, and performance correlated with VMA.

    “Both autism and MLD groups were impaired on this task relative to the TD controls, although not with respect to each other.Performance in this task correlated with VMA.”
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    Premisecitation

    Verbal ability is closely linked to colour naming performance in young children, and colour language can affect the earliest stages of perception in adults.

    “Verbal ability is known to be closely linked to colour naming performance in young children (Pitchford & Mullen, 2002) and a very recent ERP study in mono-and bi-lingual adults has suggested that colour language can affect the very earliest stages of perception (Thierry, Athanasopoulos, Wiggett, Dering, & Kuipers, 2009).”
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    Premisecitation

    In Heaton et al. (2008) colour memory phase 2, only the autism group scored above chance, and the autism group's z-scored performance was about the same in both phases.

    “In this phase of the task only the autism group scored above chance.In fact, when calculated as a z-score, the performance of the autism group was about the same in both phases of the task.”
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    Premisecitation

    There is evidence for a higher incidence of strabismus in ASD populations, which would suggest that binocular vision and stereopsis might also be affected.

    “Second, there is evidence for a higher incidence of strabismus in ASD populations (Kaplan et al., 1999;Scharre & Creedon, 1992), which would suggest that binocular vision and stereopsis might also be affected.”
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    Study design and conductcitation

    In Heaton et al. (2008), VMA was significantly different between all three groups, with the autism group having the lowest mean VMA.

    “However, VMA (measured using the BPVS) was significantly different between all three groups, with the autism group having the lowest (mean $5.5 years).”
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    Premisecitation

    In a study of six adolescents with autism and matched learning-disabled controls, there was no difference in behavioural performance, but simultaneously recorded EEG responses showed anomalies.

    “found no difference in behavioural performance between their six adolescents with autism and matched learning-disabled controls but there were anomalies in the simultaneously recorded EEG responses.”
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    Premisecitation

    In Heaton et al. (2008), phase 1 performance correlated significantly with both VMA and discrimination performance, but phase 2 performance had a significant negative correlation with VMA, suggesting children with lowest VMA performed best.

    “Subsequent analysis showed that phase 1 performance correlated significantly with both VMA and discrimination performance from the first experiment, but in phase 2 there was a significant negative correlation with VMA, suggesting that the children with lowest VMA performed best in the task.”
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    Premisecitation

    Bertone et al. (2003) found no significant difference in contrast thresholds for first-order motion direction identification between ASD and control groups, but a relative deficit in second-order motion processing, with ASD group exhibiting significantly higher modulation thresholds.

    “Bertone et al. (2003) found no significant difference in contrast thresholds for first-order motion direction identification between their ASD and control groups, but there was a relative deficit in second-order motion processing, with the ASD group exhibiting significantly higher modulation thresholds for the direction identification task.”
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    Premisecitation

    De Wit et al. (2007) argued that their PDD group was able to integrate context to complete partially occluded stimuli effectively, but had somewhat more difficulty with unusual/unfamiliar or complex shapes.

    “De Wit et al. (2007) argued that their results demonstrate that their PDD group was able to integrate context so as to complete partially occluded stimuli effectively, but they had somewhat more difficulty with unusual/unfamiliar or complex shapes.”
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    Study design and conductcitation

    In Ludlow et al. (2006), City and Ishihara colour vision tests found nothing unusual, but the sample was too small to assert that colour vision is clinically normal in ASD.

    “Note that part of Ludlow et al's (2006) screening process used the City and Ishihara colour vision tests, and nothing unusual was found, but this was too small a sample to assert that colour vision is clinically normal in ASD.”
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    Study design and conductcitation

    Franklin et al. (2008, in press) did not report VMA, which is unfortunate given the potential importance of this factor.

    “It is unfortunate, however, that Franklin et al. (2008, in press) did not report VMA in their studies, given the potential importance of this factor (Heaton et al., 2008).”
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    Premisecitation

    There is a range of clinical and anecdotal reports about depth perception being unusual in ASD, including observations that people with ASD often mis-judge inter-personal distance and have difficulties with ballcatching.

    “First, there is a range of clinical and anecdotal reports about depth perception being unusual in ASD.Kaplan (2006), for example, notes his observations that people with ASD often mis-judge inter-personal distance during social interaction and have difficulties with tasks such as ballcatching.”
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    Premisecitation

    In De Wit et al. (2007), the clinical group had largely similar reaction times to controls but differed in the pattern of priming stimuli that were effective.

    “The clinical group had largely similar reaction times to controls, but differed in the pattern of priming stimuli that were effective.”
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    Premisecitation

    Recent studies have suggested that the problems people with ASD have with reading are dissociable from their symptoms.

    “Recent studies have suggested that the problems that people with ASD have with reading are dissociable from their symptoms (Ludlow, Wilkins, & Heaton, 2006;White et al., 2006).”
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    Premisecitation

    In that study, induced gamma band activity (25-70 Hz) over parietal regions differed from the control group.

    “In particular the induced activity in the gamma band (25-70 Hz) over parietal regions was different from that of the control group.”
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    Premisecitation

    In Franklin et al. (2008), the ASD group was impaired on the colour task but not the form task.

    “it was found that the ASD group was impaired on the colour task, but not the form task.”
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    • cites Franklin et al. (2008)

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    Interpretationcitation

    The pattern of results may indicate greater difficulty in learning novel shapes or greater sensitivity to differences between them.

    “This may indicate a greater difficulty in learning novel shapes (or a greater sensitivity to differences between them).”
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    Premisecitation

    Spencer and O'Brien (2006) reported a significant threshold difference between their autism group and both typical controls (35.5% higher) and the Asperger group (26% higher) in the form coherence task.

    “Spencer and O'Brien (2006) reported a significant threshold difference between their autism group and both the typical controls (35.5% higher) and the Asperger group (26% higher) in the form coherence task.”
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    • cites Spencer and O'Brien, 2006

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    • The authors state this as an assumption: HFA and AS correspond to differing severities of ASD.

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    Premisecitation

    In Franklin et al. (2008) second experiment, reaction times showed a category boundary effect, with both groups faster when colours were from different categories, but no significant RT differences between groups.

    “Reaction times (RTs) showed a category boundary effect, with the task being performed more quickly by both groups when the colours were sampled from different categories.However, there were no significant differences in RT between the groups.”
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    Premisecitation

    In Heaton et al. (2008) colour memory phase 1, autism and MLD groups were just above chance, while the TD group performed quite well.

    “In this phase of the experiment the autism and MLD groups were just above chance, but the TD group performed quite well.”
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    Study design and conductnone given

    All three studies (Franklin et al., 2008, in press; Heaton et al., 2008) failed to characterize fully the diagnostic status of their participants.

    “Also, all three studies (Franklin et al., 2008, in press;Heaton et al., 2008) failed to characterize fully the diagnostic status of their participants.”
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    Interpretationcitation

    The conclusion from this series of studies is that children with ASD are challenged in a range of chromatic discrimination tasks compared to typical controls matched on non-verbal intelligence, and these difficulties do not transfer to similar luminance discrimination tasks.

    “The conclusion from this series of studies is that children with ASD are challenged in a range of chromatic discrimination tasks compared to typical controls matched on non-verbal intelligence and these difficulties do not transfer to similar luminance discrimination tasks.”
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    Premisecitation

    Stereopsis requires a precise developmental registration of information from each eye and is developmentally fragile.

    “Third, because stereopsis requires a precise developmental registration of information from each eye, it is developmentally fragile (Atkinson, 2000).”
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    Premisecitation

    In Franklin et al. (2008) second experiment, accuracy did not differ between within- and between-category judgements, but the ASD group performed significantly worse than controls.

    “Accuracy on the task did not differ between within-and between-category judgements, but the ASD group performed significantly worse than the controls.”
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    Premisecitation

    Vandenbroucke et al. (2008) found no significant differences between adults with HFA and typical controls in the relative amount of time a plaid was seen moving as a coherent whole rather than as two transparent components, and no significant differences in rivalry rate.

    “They found no significant differences between the participant groups in the relative amount of time that the plaid was seen moving as a coherent whole, rather than as two transparent components.There were also no significant differences between groups in the rivalry rate.”
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    • cites Vandenbroucke, Scholte, van Engelund, Lamme, and Kemner (2008)

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    Premisecitation

    Spencer et al. (2000) found that 23 children with autistic disorder had significantly higher motion coherence thresholds than CA-matched controls.

    “Their sample of 23 children with ''autistic disorder”
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    Premisecitation

    Pellicano et al. (2005) found a highly significant difference between global dot motion thresholds of their ASD and control groups, without overlap in 95% confidence intervals, although variance in ASD thresholds was larger.

    “They found a highly significant difference between global dot motion thresholds of their ASD and control groups, without any overlap in the 95% confidence intervals based on the data although, as usual, the variance on the ASD population's thresholds was considerably larger than that of the control group.”
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    Premisecitation

    Moore et al. (1997) suggested that visual processing of biological motion is intact in ASD, but problems come with interpretation of internal states of others.

    “Moore et al. (1997) therefore suggested that the visual processing of biological motion is intact in ASD, but that the problems come with the interpretation of the internal states of others.”
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    Study design and conductcitation

    Some 25% (4/16) of Blake et al.'s (2003) original ASD sample could not complete the biological motion task, and 3 of these could not complete the form task either; these were all children with lower scores on a test of expressive language.

    “Note that some 25% (4/16) of Blake et al.'s (2003) original ASD sample could not complete the biological motion task and 3 of these could not complete the form task either.These were all children with lower scores on a test of expressive language.”
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    Premisecitation

    Vandenbroucke et al. (2008) concluded there was no evidence for a difficulty with combining motion information in their ASD population, and argued that individuals with ASD may have less difficulty processing motion of low than high spatial frequency gratings.

    “They concluded that there was no evidence for a difficulty with combining motion information in their ASD population, invoking an explanation in terms of the spatial frequency content of their displays, which was predominantly low.They argued that individuals with ASD may have less difficulty processing motion of low than high spatial frequency gratings”
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    Premisecitation

    Annaz et al. (submitted) have shown that at CA 12 years, TD children are better than ASD children in discriminating intact from scrambled displays, with a flat developmental trajectory from 5 to 12 years for ASD and near identical performance of TD and ASD groups at 5 years.

    “In agreement with this, Annaz et al. (submitted for publication), also using 1-s presentation times, have shown that, at a CA of 12 years, TD children are better than ASD children in discriminating intact from scrambled displays.Moreover, there is a flat developmental trajectory from 5 to 12 years for the ASD group and near identical performance of the TD and ASD groups at 5 years of age.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Del Viva et al. (2006) used the most carefully diagnosed population and the most robust psychophysical techniques, and therefore their result indicating no significant differences between ASD and control populations should be regarded as the most reliable.

    “One is simply to indicate that Del Viva et al. (2006) used the most carefully diagnosed population and the most robust psychophysical techniques and therefore that their result indicating no significant differences between ASD and control populations should be regarded as the most reliable.”
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    Premisecitation

    In Spencer et al. (2000), motion coherence thresholds in the ASD group decreased with age (7-11 years), as did controls, but the ratio of ASD/control performance remained about the same in all age groups.

    “Interestingly, motion coherence thresholds in the ASD group did decrease with age (7-11 years), as did those of the controls, although the ratio of ASD/control performance remained about the same in all age groups.”
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    Premisecitation

    In Hubert et al. (2007), none of the other conditions reached significance, but there were larger variances on the performance of the ASD group in all conditions, and mean performance was only identical for the object motion condition.

    “whilst none of the other conditions reached significance there were larger variances on the performance of the ASD group in all conditions, and mean performance was only identical for the object motion condition.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    The ASD group may have found the object motion easiest and the human motion harder simply because the motion signal was more complex, with more non-rigid relationships between point-light stimulus components.

    “the ASD group may have found the object motion easiest and the human motion harder simply because the motion signal was more complex, with more non-rigid relationships between point-light stimulus components.”
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    Premisecitation

    In Spencer et al. (2000), control performance reached adult levels by age 11, but this was not true of the ASD group.

    “Also, whereas control performance reached adult levels by the age of 11, this was not true of the ASD group”
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    Premisecitation

    Moore et al. (1997) reported no significant differences in performance between ASD group and controls for naming point-light walkers or moving objects, but the ASD group had difficulty spontaneously describing and recognizing portrayals of emotion in PLDs despite accurately describing the mechanics of motion.

    “Moore et al. (1997) reported that there were no significant differences in performance between ASD group and controls for this task, either with point-light walkers or with the moving objects, but they found that the ASD group did have difficulty with spontaneously describing and recognizing portrayals of emotion in PLDs, despite being able to accurately describe the mechanics of the motion itself”
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    • cites Moore, Hobson, and Lee (1997)

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    Premisecitation

    A follow-up study showed additional differences: a small number of children with autism and a developmental delay were still less posturally reactive, and another small group with Asperger Syndrome and typical IQ were more posturally reactive than typical controls.

    “A follow-up study showed additional differences between a small number of children with autism and a developmental delay, who were still less posturally reactive, and another small group with Asperger Syndrome (and typical IQ) who were more posturally reactive than typical controls (Gepner & Mestre, 2002).”
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    Interpretationcitation

    The studies of Spencer et al. (2000) and Milne et al. (2002) seemed to provide a coherent story: motion coherence thresholds were significantly higher in juvenile ASD populations, consistent with Magnocellular pathway or Dorsal stream vulnerability arguments.

    “The studies of Spencer et al. (2000) and Milne et al. (2002) seemed to provide a coherent story: motion coherence thresholds were significantly higher in juvenile ASD populations, consistent with either Magnocellular pathway or ''Dorsal stream vulnerability”
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    • cites Braddick, Atkinson, & Wattam-Bell, 2003

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    • cites Milne et al., 2005

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    Premisecitation

    Milne et al. (2002) found mean thresholds for ASD and control groups gave a similar performance ratio to Spencer et al. (2000), and the range of performance was greater in the ASD group (6-64% vs 6-29%), but the inter-group difference remained significant when two ASD participants with very high thresholds were removed.

    “Mean thresholds for the ASD and control groups gave a similar performance ratio to that of Spencer et al. (2000).As with Spencer et al. (2000), the range of performance was greater in the ASD group (6-64% rather than 6-29%), but the inter-group difference was still significant when two of the ASD group with very high thresholds were removed from the calculations.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Recent data using the motion coherence paradigm in children with and without ASD give completely conflicting results ranging from no difference to partial difference to complete difference, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions.

    “Recent data using the motion coherence paradigm to compare performance of children with and without ASD thus gives completely conflicting results ranging from no difference, to partial difference to complete difference, making it very difficult to draw firm conclusions on what the data mean.”
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    Premisecitation

    Freitag et al. (2008) also reported regions with greater activation by the ASD group, including the postcentral gyri, left hippocampus and middle frontal gyrus.

    “they also reported regions with greater activation by the ASD group, including the postcentral gyri, left hippocampus and middle frontal gyrus.”
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    Premisecitation

    Spencer and O'Brien (2006) found that motion coherence thresholds differed significantly from controls for the HFA group but not the AS group, and this pattern was confirmed in an adult population by Tsermentseli et al. (2008).

    “Spencer and O'Brien (2006) divided their participants into those with HFA and those with AS and found that motion coherence thresholds dif-fered significantly from controls for the HFA group, but not the AS group.This pattern of results was confirmed in an adult population by Tsermentseli et al. (2008).”
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    • cites Spencer and O'Brien (2006)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Blake et al. (2003) found that typically developing group performed significantly better than ASD group on biological motion task, with mean d' close to 2.5 and close to 1, respectively, despite equivalent performance on a control pathfinder task.

    “Blake et al. (2003) calculated a d 0 score for the biological motion task and found that their typically developing group performed significantly better in this task than their ASD group with mean d 0 of close to 2.5 and close to 1, respectively.This is despite the two groups showing equivalent performance on a control ''pathfinder”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Blake et al. (2003) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    Blake et al. (2003) found a significant negative correlation between individual d' scores for the ASD group and level of autism as measured by ADOS and CARS, although there was also a correlation within the ASD group with MA.

    “In addition, Blake et al. (2003) plotted the individual d 0 scores for the ASD group as a function of their ''level”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Blake et al. (2003) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    It is commonly asserted that people with ASD have difficulty attending to the eye-region of faces, unlike typical controls and/or attend selectively to the mouth region.

    “It is commonly asserted that people with ASD have difficulty attending to the eye-region of faces, unlike typical controls (Boraston et al., 2008;Dalton et al., 2005;Gross, 2004;Klin, Jones, Schultz, Volkmar, & Cohen, 2002;Pelphrey et al., 2002;Rutherford, Clements, & Sekuler, 2007a) and/or attend selectively to the mouth region (Joseph & Tanaka, 2003;Langdell, 1978).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Boraston et al., 2008

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    • cites Dalton et al., 2005 source

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    • cites Gross, 2004

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Whilst the ASD group was capable of discriminating the biological motion from scrambled motion they seemed to be doing it using a different network of brain regions.

    “Whilst the ASD group was capable of discriminating the biological motion from scrambled motion they seemed to be doing it using a different network of brain regions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Freitag et al. (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Spezio et al.'s (2007) data reinforces the idea that face scanning is atypical in adults with ASD, which may have a profound influence on social functioning.

    “Spezio et al.'s (2007) data reinforces the idea that face scanning is atypical in adults with ASD, which may have a profound influence on social functioning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Spezio et al. (2007) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    This difficulty is a subtle one and seems to be confined to paradigms in which an extended verbal response is required.

    “this difficulty is a subtle one and seems to be confined to paradigms in which an extended verbal response is required.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    There is a small concern that the featural changes in Barton et al. (2007) were not matched for discriminability with the configural changes.

    “there is a small concern that the featural changes were not matched for discriminability with the featural changes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barton et al. (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The activation network in the control group included the right Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS), which is known to be a central structure in biological motion processing.

    “The activation network included the right Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS), which is known to be a central structure in biological motion processing (see Puce & Perrett, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Puce & Perrett, 2003

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Participants with ASD do seem able to distinguish propelled from self-propelled motion and animacy from non-animacy, although possibly with developmental delay or a training requirement.

    “participants with ASD do seem able to distinguish propelled from self-propelled motion and animacy from non-animacy, although possibly with developmental delay or a training requirement”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bowler & Thommen, 2000

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    • cites Johnson & Rakison, 2006

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    • cites Rutherford, Pennington, & Rogers, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    A potential criticism of Rutherford et al. (2007a) is that there was no explicit measurement of eye fixations.

    “A potential criticism of Rutherford et al. (2007a) is that there was no explicit measurement of eye fixations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rutherford et al. (2007a)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This experiential effect is likely to vary between individuals and may give rise to the sorts of ability differences in ASD populations reported by Barton et al. (2004).

    “Clearly this experiential effect is likely to vary between individuals and may give rise to the sorts of ability differences in ASD populations reported by Barton et al. (2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barton et al. (2004) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Most recent studies have shown significant face inversion effects in ASD populations, shifting the balance in favour of an intact face inversion effect in ASD, at least in high-functioning groups.

    “most recent studies have shown significant face inversion effects in ASD populations (Barton, Hefter, Cherkasova, & Manoach, 2007;Gross, 2008;Lahaie et al., 2006;Teunisse & de Gelder, 2003) shifting the balance in favour of an intact face inversion effect in ASD, at least in high-functioning groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Barton, Hefter, Cherkasova, & Manoach, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gross, 2008

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    • cites Lahaie et al., 2006

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Gowen et al. (2008), the performance of both groups showed a significant interference effect for all conditions, however the ASD group did show the effect strongest when viewing the movements of an actual person.

    “the performance of both groups showed a significant interference effect for all conditions, however the ASD group did show the effect strongest when viewing the movements of an actual person.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gowen, Stanley, and Miall (2008)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The behavioural data reviewed above does not provide unequivocal back-up for there being a specific face-processing deficit in all individuals diagnosed with ASD, although it could be argued that this ability is less robust than in typical populations.

    “the behavioural data reviewed above does not provide unquivocal back-up for there being a specific face-processing deficit in all individuals diagnosed with ASD, although it could be argued that this ability is less robust than in typical populations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Elsabbagh et al. (2009) found that early ERP components did not differ between infant siblings of children diagnosed with ASD and controls, but the later P400 potential showed a prolonged latency in response to direct gaze.

    “Elsabbagh et al. (2009) found that the early ERP components did not differ between the sibling group and controls, but the later P400 potential (thought to be a pre-cursor of the adult N170) showed a prolonged latency in response to direct gaze.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Elsabbagh et al. (2009)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dawson et al. (2002a) found that typical matched controls showed ERP amplitude differences in potentials P400 and Nc to both familiar vs. unfamiliar toys and faces, but the ASD group only showed ERP amplitude modulation in these components to the toys.

    “The typical matched controls showed ERP amplitude differences in potentials P400 and Nc to both familiar vs. unfamiliar toys and faces, but the ASD group only showed ERP amplitude modulation in these components to the toys.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dawson et al. (2002a)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    McPartland et al. (2004) found longer latency N170 potential responses to faces versus non-faces, but equivalent latencies for objects, in adolescents and adults with ASD.

    “In adolescents and adults with ASD, McPartland, Dawson, Webb, Panagiotides, and Carver (2004) found longer latency N170 potential responses to faces versus non-faces, but equivalent latencies for objects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McPartland et al. (2004)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Grice et al. (2005) suggested that their results reflected a developmental delay in the processing of eye gaze in ASD.

    “Grice et al. (2005) suggested that their results reflected a developmental delay in the processing of eye gaze in ASD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Grice et al. (2005)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Senju et al. (2003) found that children with ASD failed to show a detection advantage when the gaze of the target face was direct, unlike typical children, although performance in oddball detection for averted gaze was the same.

    “They found that the children with ASD failed to show a detection advantage when the gaze of the target face was direct, unlike the typical children, although the performance in oddball detection for averted gaze was the same.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Senju et al. (2003)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Since the first studies in 2000, there have been a large number of replications of reduced or anomalous activation of Fusiform Gyrus in both adults and children with ASD during face processing tasks, which might be consistent with a non-existent, inactive or at least substantially altered FFA.

    “Since the first studies in 2000, there have been a large number of replications of reduced or anomalous activation of Fusiform Gyrus in both adults and children with ASD during face processing tasks which might be consistent with a non-existent, inactive or at least substantially altered FFA (Critchley et al., 2000;Hall, Szechtman, & Nahmias, 2003;Pierce, Muller, Ambrose, Allen, & Courchesne, 2001”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Critchley et al., 2000

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    • cites Hall et al., 2003

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    • cites Pierce et al., 2001 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bailey et al. (2005) implicates a processing network with subtly different timing and localization when adults with ASD view pictures of faces, possibly indicating unusual activity in the Fusiform Gyrus, consistent with many fMRI studies of face processing in ASD.

    “This study implicates a processing network with subtly different timing and localization when adults with ASD view pictures of faces, possibly indicating unusual activity in the Fusiform Gyrus, consistent with many fMRI studies of face processing in ASD (see below).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bailey et al., 2005

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Webb et al. (2006) found that 3-4-year-old children with ASD showed slower ERPs to faces and larger ERP amplitudes to objects than control children.

    “Webb, Dawson, Bernier, and Panagiotides (2006) found that 3-4-year-old children with ASD showed slower ERPs to faces and larger ERP amplitudes to objects than control children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Webb et al. (2006) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Recent EEG studies have suggested that Grice et al.'s (2001) result may be unsound and demonstrated that gamma oscillations from EEG with the broad-band time-frequency signature indicated in Fig. 1 of Grice et al. (2001) are likely to be an artifact caused by spiking potentials from the eyes.

    “Recent EEG studies have however, suggested that this result may be unsound and demonstrated that gamma oscillations from EEG with the broad-band time-frequency signature indicated in Fig. 1 of Grice et al. (2001) are likely to be an artifact caused by spiking potentials from the eyes (see Yuval-Greenberg et al. (2008) and discussion above).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yuval-Greenberg et al. (2008) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Elsabbagh et al. (2009) found that measurements of neural oscillations in the gamma band showed differences between the sib-ASD and control groups in response to direct gaze; this gamma activity was later and less persistent over the right temporal region in the sib-ASD group.

    “Measurements of neural oscillations in the gamma band also showed differences between the sib-ASD and control groups in response to direct gaze.This gamma activity was later and less persistent over the right temporal region in the sib-ASD group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Elsabbagh et al. (2009)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Kylliäinen et al. (2006) examined MEG responses to faces with different eye-gaze states in 7-12-year-old children and found only subtle differences between these responses and those of normative controls.

    “Kylliäinen, Brauetigem, Hietanen, Swithenby, and Bailey (2006) examined MEG responses to faces with different eye-gaze states in 7-12-year-old children.Only subtle differences were found between these responses and those of normative controls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kylliäinen et al. (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Boeschoten et al. (2007), the difference came in the relative amount of frontal and occipital activation to low-pass filtered faces; in controls frontal sources were activated most by LSF faces and occipital sources by HSF faces, but in the PDD group occipital sources were always the most active.

    “The difference came in the relative amount of frontal and occipital activation to low-pass fil-tered faces.In the controls frontal sources were activated the most by LSF faces and occipital sources by HSF faces, but in the PDD group occipital sources were always the most active.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Boeschoten et al. (2007)

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    It is well known that the fusiform gyrus contains a region that appears to be critical to face processing, known as the Fusiform Face Area (FFA).

    “It is well known that the fusiform gyrus contains a region that appears to be critical to face processing that has become known as the Fusiform Face Area (FFA) (Kanwisher, McDermott, & Chun, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kanwisher et al., 1997 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Grice et al. (2001) found that in the ASD group oscillatory potentials in the gamma band (20-50 Hz), thought to be characteristic of visual coherence, were reduced in amplitude.

    “In the ASD group they found that the oscillatory potentials in the so-called gamma band (20-50 Hz), thought to be characteristic of visual coherence, were reduced in amplitude in the ASD group (see Tallon-Baudry, Bertrand, Delpuech, & Pernier, 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Grice et al. (2001)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tallon-Baudry et al., 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Children and adults with ASD have some sensitivity to eye gaze differences: reflexive visual orienting to eye gaze cues seems largely intact, and acuity for modulation in eye gaze is indistinguishable from typicals down to about 10 deg away from midline.

    “To summarise this section on eye gaze processing, it is clear that children and adults with ASD have some sensitivity to eye gaze differences in that reflexive visual orienting to eye gaze cues seems to be largely intact, and acuity for modulation in eye gaze is indistinguishable from typicals down to about 10 deg away from midline.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Swettenham et al.'s (2003) results suggest that children with ASD can perceive larger movements of the eyes and can reflexively move their attention to the location cued by them.

    “This suggests that not only can children with ASD perceive larger movements of the eyes, but they can also reflexively move their attention to the location cued by them.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Swettenham et al. (2003)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Senju et al. (2005), when schematic pictures of pairs of eyes maintained the symmetry cues normally present if a viewer is facing directly towards you, a direct gaze effect was observed in the ASD children, despite generally longer reaction times in the clinical group for all tasks.

    “However, in a clever additional experiment, Senju et al. (2005) used schematic pictures of pairs of eyes which maintained the symmetry cues normally present if a viewer is facing directly towards you.In this case, a direct gaze effect was observed in the ASD children, despite there being generally longer reaction times in the clinical group for all tasks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Senju et al. (2005)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    There is evidence that individuals with ASD tend to process the eye region of faces less effectively than typical individuals, and that this difficulty may arise from a tendency not to look at the eye region of faces unless specifically instructed to.

    “There is evidence that individuals with ASD tend to process the eye region of faces less effectively than typical individuals (e.g.Spezio et al., 2007), and that this difficulty may arise from a tendency not to look at the eye region of faces unless specifically instructed to (Dalton et al., 2005;Pehplrey et al., 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Spezio et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Dalton et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pehplrey et al., 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Pellicano et al. argue that the difficulty in adaptation may reflect a problem with generalization across stimuli, which has been highlighted in some theoretical approaches to ASD.

    “They argue that this difficulty may reflect a problem with generalization across stimuli, which has been highlighted in some theoretical approaches to ASD (Frith, 1989;Klinger & Dawson, 2001;Plaisted, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Frith, 1989

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Klinger & Dawson, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Plaisted, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The tendency not to look at the eye region of faces in ASD could arise from the well known aversion to direct gaze in ASD.

    “This tendency could, in turn, arise from the well known aversion to direct gaze in ASD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Eye contact or direct gaze is particularly aversive for people with ASD.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Whilst the weight of evidence, in terms of number of replications, currently favours the hypo-arousal camp, it seems that it is really too early to start building theories of the development of ASD which rely on this result.

    “Whilst the weight of evidence, in terms of number of replications, currently favours the hypo-arousal camp, it seems that it is really too early to start building theories of the development of ASD which rely on this result.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dalton et al. (2005) found that activation of the fusiform gyrus in their face processing task correlated with eye movements to the appropriate parts of the face in the ASD participants, but did not observe the same correlations in the control participants.

    “Dalton et al. (2005), who explicitly monitored eye movements during the scanning of their adolescents with ASD, found that activation of the fusiform gyrus in their face processing task correlated with eye movements to the appropriate parts of the face in the ASD participants, but did not observe the same correlations in the control participants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dalton et al. (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pierce et al. (2004) used an event-related design and familiar faces and found significant activations in what they argued was the FFA in their small sample of eight adults with ASD.

    “Pierce et al. (2004) used an event-related, rather than a block design, and utilized familiar faces to engage the attention of ASD participants more in the task.Pierce et al. (2004) found significant activations in what they argued was the FFA in their small sample of eight adults with ASD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pierce et al. (2004)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Jolliffe and Baron-Cohen (1997) found that their ASD group (both classic HFA and AS) was almost twice as fast, on average, as typical controls matched on IQ, although there were no significant differences in accuracy, all participants being quite close to ceiling in the task.

    “They also supported Shah and Frith (1983) in that their ASD group (both those with classic HFA and those with AS) was almost twice as fast, on average, as typical controls matched on IQ, although there were no significant differences in accuracy, all participants being quite close to ceiling in the task.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Jolliffe and Baron-Cohen (1997)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Shah and Frith (1983)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Dalton et al. (2005) argued that faces, when properly fixated by individuals with ASD, actually cause hyperarousal of the amygdala, and that this effect may be a factor in the well known symptom of gaze aversion.

    “They argued that faces, when properly fixated by individuals with ASD (note that their ASD sample was also quite young, with a mean age of 15), actually cause hyperarousal of the amygdala, and that this effect may be a factor in the well known symptom of gaze aversion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dalton et al. (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The tendency to use higher rather than lower spatial frequency information might cause particular problems when face stimuli are far away, although it would depend on whether the issue is with spatial frequency per se or the relative spatial frequency content of the face.

    “This tendency to use the higher, rather than the lower, spatial frequency information might cause particular problems when face stimuli are far away, although it would depend on whether or not the issue is with spatial frequency per se, or the relative spatial frequency content of the face.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Deruelle et al. (2004)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pellicano et al. (2007) found that their ASD group (children aged 8-13 years) could discriminate between the two target faces as well as matched controls in the baseline condition, but showed considerably less adaptation to the anti-faces, with the amount of adaptation correlating with the child's symptomatology as measured by the SCQ.

    “Pellicano et al. (2007) found that their ASD group (children aged 8-13 years) could discriminate between the two target faces as well as matched controls in the baseline condition, but showed considerably less adaptation to the anti-faces with the amount of adaptation correlating with the child's symptomatology, as measured by the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ; Fig. 6.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pellicano et al. (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hadjikhani et al. (2004b) showed that when a prominent fixation spot was placed in the centre of the display screen, the face stimuli were large (20 deg in diameter), participants were not asked to make a discrimination but passively monitor the display, and high-resolution (3T) scanning was used, significant bilateral activations of the Fusiform Gyrus were obtained which did not overlap with物体处理区

    “They showed that when a prominent fixation spot was placed in the centre of the display screen, the face stimuli were large (20 deg in diameter), participants were not asked to make a discrimination but passively monitor the display, and high-resolution (3T) scanning was used, significant bilateral activations of the Fusiform Gyrus were obtained which did not overlap with object processing regions”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hadjikhani et al. (2004b)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Shah and Frith (1983) found that the performance of children with autism in the Embedded Figures Test was significantly higher than that of controls, and as good as, if not slightly better than, that expected of children matching their CA.

    “They found that not only was the performance of the children with autism significantly higher than that of the controls, but as good as, if not slightly better than, that expected of children matching their CA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shah and Frith (1983)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ring et al. (1999) found that activations in control participants were more extensive and included pre-frontal cortical areas that were not recruited in the ASD group; the ASD group demonstrated greater activation in occipito-temporal regions.

    “It was found that activations in control participants were more extensive and included pre-frontal cortical areas that were not recruited in the ASD group.The ASD group, however, demonstrated greater activation in occipito-temporal regions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ring et al. (1999)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Welchew et al. (2005) reported reduced functional connectivity between the amygdala and other brain areas, but admitted that findings in this area can be highly task-dependent.

    “Welchew et al. (2005) reported reduced functional connectivity between the amygdala and other brain areas, but admitted that findings in this area can be highly task-dependent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Welchew et al. (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ashwin et al. (2007) reported reduced activation of amygdala together with higher activations in Superior Temporal Sulcus, and other brain regions, relative to controls.

    “Ashwin et al. (2007) reported reduced activation of amygdala together with higher activations in Superior Temporal Sulcus, and other brain regions, relative to controls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ashwin et al. (2007)

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    It has been commented on for some time that both children and adults with ASD appear to be sensitive to minute changes in their environment which are often invisible to, or at least unnoticed by, their typical peers.

    “It has been commented on for some time that both children and adults with ASD appear to be sensitive to minute changes in their environment which are often invisible to, or at least unnoticed by, their typical peers (Wing, 1976).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wing, 1976

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Grelotti et al. (2005) found hypo-activation for emotional faces in their case study of ASD, but found significant activation for the Digimon characters that their participant was obsessed with.

    “Grelotti et al. (2005) found hypo-activation for emotional faces in their case study of ASD, but found significant activation for the Digimon TM characters that their participant was obsessed with.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Grelotti et al. (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Pellicano et al.'s (2007) findings suggest that visual adaptation mechanisms may be affected in ASD, and possibly not in a face-specific way.

    “Pellicano et al.'s (2007) findings suggest that visual adaptation mechanisms may be affected in ASD, and possibly not in a facespecific way.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pellicano et al. (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wang et al. (2004) found hypo-activation of the amygdala, but it was a small effect.

    “Wang, Dapretto, Hariri, Sigman, and Bookheimer (2004) found hypo-activation, but it was a small effect.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wang et al. (2004)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Barton et al.'s (2004, 2007) differential findings with groups differing in their famous face recognition abilities suggest that there are a broad range of face processing abilities in ASD populations which must be divided further in order to provide meaningful results.

    “Barton et al.'s (2004Barton et al.'s ( , 2007) ) differential findings with groups differing in their famous face recognition abilities also suggests that there are a broad range of face processing abilities in ASD populations which must be divided further in order to provide meaningful results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barton et al. (2004, 2007)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Pellicano et al. (2007) used reliably diagnosed ASD groups and forced-choice psychophysics, although the observed effects were small and eye movements were not monitored directly during task performance.

    “Pellicano et al. (2007) used reliably diagnosed ASD groups and forced-choice psychophysics, although the observed effects were small and eye movements were not monitored directly during task performance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pellicano et al. (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Ring et al. (1999) suggested that the frontal activations may indicate the involvement of working memory systems in solving the task but that the ASD group only used visual areas.

    “Ring et al. (1999) suggested that the frontal activations may indicate the involvement of working memory systems in solving the task but that the ASD group only used visual areas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ring et al. (1999)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The literature on face processing and visual attention is still highly contentious.

    “The literature on face processing and visual attention is still highly contentious.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Keehn et al. (2008) found that despite only marginal differences in search performance between ASD and typical groups, BOLD activations in the ASD group were more extensive, recruiting frontal, parietal and occipital cortices, whereas activations in the typical group were more confined to occipitotemporal regions.

    “Despite only marginal differences in search performance between the two groups the BOLD activations in the ASD group were more extensive, recruiting a network involving frontal, parietal and occipital cortices, whereas activations in the typical group were more confined to occipitotemporal regions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keehn et al. (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Belmonte and Yurgelun-Todd (2003) found less frontal activation and more occipital activation in the ASD group.

    “In particular, Belmonte and Yurgelun-Todd (2003) found less frontal activation and more occipital activation in the ASD group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Belmonte and Yurgelun-Todd (2003) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Individuals with ASD seem to have problems with attending to people in natural animated scenes, but whether this is due to low-level visual factors or higher-level motivational factors is still unclear.

    “Individuals with ASD also seem to have problems with attending to people in natural animated scenes, but whether this is due to low-level visual factors or higher-level motivational factors is still unclear.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rinehart et al. (2008) demonstrated that Inhibition of Return (IOR) is intact in young people with autism and AS, and possibly slightly superior to control performance.

    “Rinehart, Bradshaw, Moss, Brereton, and Tonge ( 2008) recently demonstrated that Inhibition of Return (IOR), another aspect of visual search, is intact in young people with autism and AS, and possibly even slightly superior to control performance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rinehart et al. (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Van der Geest et al. (2001) found no significant differences between the autism group and controls in each condition individually, but the gap effect was smaller in the autism group, suggesting lower levels of attentional engagement.

    “Van der Geest et al. (2001) found that, although there were no significant differences between the autism group and controls in each condition individually, the gap effect was smaller in the autism group, suggesting that children with autism have lower levels of attentional engagement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Van der Geest et al. (2001)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The key result of Shah and Frith (1993) was that the autism group performed better than controls only when the block design was presented in its whole, unsegmented form, suggesting that their superiority in the task was dependent on a superior ability to break the original pattern down into subpatterns.

    “The key result was that the autism group performed better than controls only when the block design was presented in its whole, unsegmented form, suggesting that their superiority in the task was dependent on a superior ability to break the original pattern down into subpatterns.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shah and Frith (1993)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If people with ASD are poor empathizers and good systemizers, one might expect a deficit in the recognition and interpretation of complex facial expressions and possibly also a skill in visual analysis of the components of complex images.

    “In visual processing terms, again, the implications of this theory are not direct, but if people with ASD are poor empathizers and good systemizers, one might expect a deficit in the recognition and interpretation of complex facial expressions and possibly also a skill in visual analysis of the components of complex images.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Greenaway and Plaisted (2005) suggested that individuals with ASD have difficulty prioritizing dynamic stimuli, and linked this to a magnocellular pathway processing deficit.

    “They suggested that individuals with ASD have difficulty prioritizing dynamic stimuli, and linked this to a magnocellular pathway processing deficit (Greenaway & Plaisted, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Greenaway & Plaisted, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The notion of superior performance of individuals with ASD in the EFT or its analogues has been challenged in a number of studies, but none has yet provided a convincing disconfirmation of either the Shah and Frith (1983) or the Jolliffe and Baron-Cohen (1997) results.

    “The notion of superior performance of individuals with ASD in the EFT or its analogues has been challenged in a number of studies (Brian & Bryson, 1996;Kaland, Mortensen, & Smith, 2007;Ozonoff, Pennington, & Rogers, 1991;Schlooz et al., 2006), but none has yet provided a convincing disconfirmation of either the Shah and Frith (1983) or the Jolliffe and Baron-Cohen (1997) results.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brian & Bryson, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kaland et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Schlooz et al., 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The weak coherence account was supported by original observations in ASD populations of superior disembedding performance in the Embedded Figures Task, superior performance in the Block Design Task, and reduced sensitivity to visual illusions.

    “The account was supported by the original observations in ASD populations of superior disembedding performance in the Embedded Figures Task (Shah & Frith, 1983), superior performance in the Block Design Task (Shah & Frith, 1993) and reduced sensitivity to visual illusions (Happé, 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Shah & Frith, 1983

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Shah & Frith, 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Happé, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The difficulties for ASD participants with complex motion stimuli, which seemed so clear cut a few years ago, are now much more contentious, but local superiority effects in tasks such as visual search seem to be holding their own.

    “The difficulties for ASD participants with complex motion stimuli, which seemed so clear cut a few years ago, are now much more contentious, but local superiority effects in tasks such as visual search seem to be holding their own.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is probably enough evidence to suggest that the processing of information across spatial scales works differently in ASD, but precisely how is too early to call.

    “There is probably enough evidence to suggest that the processing of information across spatial scales works differently in ASD, but precisely how is too early to call.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Most of the data added to the field since the reviews of Dakin and Frith (2005) and Behrmann et al. (2006b) are contradictory, or at least contested, so it is very hard to say anything with certainty.

    “However, most of these data are contradictory, or at least contested, so it is very hard to say anything with certainty.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dakin and Frith (2005)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Behrmann et al. (2006b)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The neuroimaging data indicates unusual patterns of brain activations, particularly when eye movements are not controlled, and there is a trend of finding higher activations at lower levels of visual processing, consistent with the idea of some sort of bottleneck in the processing pathway somewhere between primary visual cortex and higher visual areas.

    “The neuroimaging data indicates unusual patterns of brain activations, particularly when eye movements are not controlled, and there is a trend of finding higher activations at lower levels of visual processing, consistent with the idea of some sort of bottleneck in the processing pathway somewhere between primary visual cortex and higher visual areas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Greenaway and Plaisted (2005) found that the performance of the ASD group, in terms of top-down modulation, was equivalent for the colour stimuli, but not for the onset stimuli.

    “They found that the performance of the ASD group, in terms of top-down modulation, was equivalent for the colour stimuli, but not for the onset stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Greenaway and Plaisted (2005)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Bölte et al. (2008) interpreted this reduced activation as evidence for a reduction in the formation of visual contours in the ASD group.

    “Bölte et al. (2008) interpreted this reduced activation as evidence for a reduction in the formation of visual contours in the ASD group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bölte et al. (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Executive Dysfunction account focuses on difficulties that individuals with ASD have with tasks involving planning, mental flexibility, generativity, inhibition and multi-tasking.

    “This theory focuses on the difficulties that individuals with ASD have with tasks involving planning, mental flexibility, generativity, inhibition and multi-tasking (Hill, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hill, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The balance is in favour of an attentional difficulty resulting in unusual eye gaze, which then results in unusual visual experience and development.

    “The balance is in favour of an attentional difficulty resulting in unusual eye gaze, which then results in unusual visual experience and development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    The prevailing view on social attention is that individuals with ASD have difficulty with attending to people, particularly the eye regions of faces, in a range of stimulus situations.

    “The prevailing view on social attention is, then, that individuals with ASD have difficulty with attending to people, particularly the eye regions of faces, in a range of stimulus situations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The updated EPF theory is largely consistent with current literature on perception in ASD.

    “Given the recency of the publication of this updated theory, it is largely consistent with current literature on perception in ASD”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Burack et al. (2009) found detection failures decreased with increasing developmental level for typical children, but remained constant over the same developmental range for children with autism, pointing to an atypical developmental trajectory for change-detection among children with autism.

    “Detection failures decreased with increasing developmental level for typical children, but remained constant over the same developmental range for children with autism, pointing to an atypical developmental trajectory for change-detection among children with autism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burack et al. (2009)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Haist et al. (2005) found less frontal and more occipital activation for short ISI attention tasks, and also reported hypo-activation of the cerebellum in either short or long ISI conditions.

    “Haist, Adamo, Westerfield, Courchesne, and Townsend (2005) also found this, at least for short ISI attention tasks, but also reported hypo-activation of the cerebellum in either short or long ISI conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haist et al. (2005)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    The colour discrimination experiment used by Franklin et al. is a low-level task.

    “For example, the colour discrimination experiment used by Franklin et al. (in press) is what most vision scientists would call a low-level task”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hadjikhani et al. (2004a) found that early visual areas were organized as in typical controls, with typical ratios between central and visual field representations.

    “Hadjikhani et al. (2004a) mapped visual cortical areas in a group of individuals with HFA, and found that early visual areas were organized as in typical controls, with typical ratios between central and visual field representations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hadjikhani et al. (2004a)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wang et al. (2007) argued that local bias for visual processing potentially gives individuals on the autism spectrum a flexibility which is unavailable to typical individuals and which may sometimes enhance and sometimes diminish performance in visual tasks.

    “They also argued that this local bias for visual processing potentially gives individuals on the autism spectrum a flexibility which is unavailable to typical individuals and which may sometimes enhance and sometimes diminish performance in visual tasks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wang et al. (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Swettenham et al. (1998) found that control groups tended to focus most on people, shifting attention mainly from objects to people, while the autism group tended to shift from objects to other objects.

    “They found that whereas the control groups tended to focus most on people, shifting attention mainly from objects to people, the autism group tended to shift from objects to other objects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Swettenham et al. (1998) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Klin et al. (2002) found individuals who fixated more on mouths than objects tended to score higher in social functioning tests, whereas those who focused more on objects showed the opposite tendency.

    “Individuals who fixated more on mouths than objects tended to score higher in social functioning tests, whereas those who focused more on objects showed the opposite tendency.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Klin et al. (2002) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Children with ASD showed a small performance enhancement for first-order contrast detection in noise, but a performance decrement for second-order contrast detection.

    “We were also fascinated with the result of Bertone et al. (2005) (see Fig. 1), suggesting that children with ASD showed a (small) performance enhancement for first-order contrast detection in noise, but a performance decrement for second-order contrast detection.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bertone et al. (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hadjikhani et al. (2004a) argue that any visual processing atypicalities in autism must come from higher-level visual areas and be the result of top-down influences.

    “They argue that any visual pro-cessing atypicalities in autism must come from higher-level visual areas and be the result of top-down influences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hadjikhani et al. (2004a)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Plaisted et al. (1999) suggested that switching the spatial scale of attention was most problematic for the children with autism, and that the default state might well be set at a finer scale than that of typical children.

    “These results suggested that switching the spatial scale of attention was most problematic for the children with autism, and that the default state might well be set at a finer scale than that of typical children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Plaisted et al. (1999) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wang et al. (2007) interpreted their results as evidence for atypical local-to-global interference in ASD and local advantages in incongruent conditions.

    “They interpreted their complex pattern of results as evidence for atypical local-to-global interference in ASD and local advantages in incongruent conditions, where the local and global stimuli are unmatched.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wang et al. (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bird et al. (2006) found that responses to houses were modulated by attention in both groups, but only controls showed attentional modulation to faces.

    “Analysis showed that responses to houses were modulated by attention in both groups, but only the controls showed attentional modulation to faces.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bird et al. (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Atypical ERP and EEG responses to visual stimulation have been found in a number of studies on ASD, including abnormal spatial frequency processing and apparent functional under- and over-connectivity.

    “Atypical ERP and EEG responses to visual stimulation have been found in a number of studies on ASD (see reviews by Dawson et al., 2005;Kemner & van Engelund, 2006).These include abnormal spatial frequency processing (Boeschoten et al., 2007;Milne et al., 2009), and apparent functional under-and over-connectivity (Murias, Webb, Greenson, & Dawson, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dawson et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kemner & van Engelund, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Boeschoten et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bird et al. (2006) found an analysis of effective connectivity suggested that in the ASD group there was a failure to modulate connectivity between extrastriate areas and V1, which could result in a reduced salience for social stimuli.

    “An analysis of effective connectivity suggested that in the ASD group there was a failure to modulate connectivity between extrastriate areas and V1: which could result in a reduced salience for social stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bird et al. (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Van der Geest et al. (2003) tested a variety of eye movement parameters as well as attentional tasks in a group of children with autism and found that only the attention task showed group differences.

    “Van der Geest, Kemner, Verbaten, and van Engelund (2003) tested a variety of eye movement parameters as well as attentional tasks in a group of children with autism and found that only the attention task showed group differences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Van der Geest et al. (2003)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Klin et al. (2002) argued that in natural social scenes, eyes are the least salient stimulus for individuals with ASD, and mouths, bodies and objects are relatively more salient.

    “Klin et al. (2002) argued that, in natural social scenes, eyes are the least salient stimulus for individuals with ASD, and mouths, bodies and objects are relatively more salient.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Klin et al. (2002) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Rondan and Deruelle (2007) argue that configurational, rather than global, processing is disrupted in ASD.

    “Rondan and Deruelle (2007) argue that configurational, rather than global, processing is disrupted in ASD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rondan and Deruelle (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Takarae et al. (2004) found the ASD group had increased variability in saccade accuracy, together with mild saccadic hypometria in those without delayed language development.

    “The ASD group was found to have increased variability in saccade accuracy, together with mild saccadic hypometria in those without delayed language development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Takarae et al. (2004) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Spencer and O'Brien (2006) and Tsermentseli et al. (2008) found a deficit in form processing in autism, but not in Asperger Syndrome.

    “Spencer and O'Brien (2006) and Tsermentseli et al. (2008) have found an interesting deficit in autism, but not in Asperger Syndrome.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Spencer and O'Brien (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tsermentseli et al. (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Villalobos et al. (2005) found intact functional connectivity in the ASD group between V1 and superior parietal areas, suggesting that dorsal stream connectivity was intact, but reduced functional connectivity between V1 and inferior frontal areas, which they suggest may be consistent with mirror-neuron system dysfunction.

    “They found intact functional connectivity in the ASD group between V1 and superior parietal areas, suggesting that dorsal stream connectivity was intact.There was, however, reduced functional connectivity between V1 and inferior frontal areas, which Villalobos et al. (2005) suggest may be consistent with mirror-neuron system dysfunction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Villalobos et al. (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    There is a suggestion of reduced ability of ASD populations in chromatic discrimination.

    “One potential problem with the EPF theory reported here though is the suggestion of reduced ability of ASD populations in chromatic discrimination (Franklin et al., 2008, in press;Heaton et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Franklin et al., 2008, in press

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Heaton et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Swettenham et al. (1998) found the autism group spent less time looking at people and more time looking at objects.

    “The autism group also spent less time looking at people and more time looking at objects”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Swettenham et al. (1998) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    There has not been much time for the updated EPF theory to be put to the test.

    “and there has not been much time for it to be put to the test.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Goldberg et al. (2002) found differences between ASD and control performance on saccadic tasks, suggesting significant abnormalities in oculomotor function.

    “There were a number of differences between ASD and control performance on these tasks, which suggested significant abnormalities in oculomotor function.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Goldberg et al. (2002) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Defining what is simple and what is complex is a significant challenge within the context of vision science.

    “Another significant challenge within the context of vision science is defining what is”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Some studies have reported that participants with ASD tend to be more sensitive to the local stimulus than controls, but others have not.

    “Using Navon-type stimuli, some studies have reported that participants with ASD tend to be more sensitive to the local stimulus than controls (Rinehart Bradshaw, Moss, Brereton, & Tonge, 2000, 2001 (autism only, not AS), Gross, 2005;Behrmann et al., 2006a), but others have not (Deruelle, Rondan, Gepner, & Fagot, 2006;Edgin & Pennington, 2005;Mottron, Burack, Iarocci, Belleville, & Enns, 2003;Mottr”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Rinehart Bradshaw, Moss, Brereton, & Tonge, 2000, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gross, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Behrmann et al., 2006a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Courchesne et al. (2007) reviewed that the key feature in early development of autism seems to be early brain overgrowth, possibly due to a failure of neural pruning, and consequent abnormalities in neural patterning and wiring.

    “The key feature in early development seems to be early brain overgrowth, possibly due to a failure of neural pruning, and consequent abnormalities in neural patterning and wiring.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Courchesne et al. (2007) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rondan and Deruelle (2007) found that adults with ASD favoured the local shape match rather than the configuration match, unlike typical controls, despite equivalent performance on a Navon-type task.

    “Adults with ASD favoured the local shape match rather than the configuration match, unlike the typical controls, these being the same adults with ASD who had shown equivalent performance to the controls on a Navon-type task.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rondan and Deruelle (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Plaisted et al. (1999) found no global advantage (local precedence) in the autism group in the divided attention task, but performance was the same as controls in the selective attention task.

    “They found that no global advantage (local precedence) was found in the autism group in the divided attention task, but that performance was the same as controls in the selective attention task.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Plaisted et al. (1999) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The neural noise model is readily testable using established vision science paradigms such as equivalent noise analysis and is physiologically plausible.

    “The other advantage is that this theory is readily testable using established vision science paradigms such as equivalent noise analysis and is physiologically plausible.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Splitting the ASD population using diagnostic or performance measures increases the problem of participant recruitment.

    “but obviously this technique increases the problem of participant recruitment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A combination of stochastic resonance amplifying local differences and masking hiding global differences would seem to have considerable explanatory mileage in the context of the visual search data at least.

    “However, a combination of stochastic resonance amplifying local differences and masking hiding global differences would seem to have considerable explanatory mileage in the context of the visual search data at least.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other studies have suggested that neural noise is involved in ASD.

    “Other studies that have suggested that neural noise is involved in ASD include: Rubenstein and Merzenich (2003), Belmonte and Yugelun-Todd (2003), Dakin and Frith (2005), Thornton (2006), Sanchez-Marin and Padina-Marilla (2008), Alcantara (2008), Lugo, Doti, and Faubert (2008) and Franklin et al. (in press).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Rubenstein and Merzenich (2003) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Belmonte and Yugelun-Todd (2003)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Dakin and Frith (2005)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The neural noise model has considerable explanatory power and is parsimonious, but flexible enough to account for a wide variety of phenomena in the literature on vision and ASD, and may well have broader implications for understanding the condition as a whole.

    “we would argue that the neural noise model has considerable explanatory power and is parsimonious, but flexible enough to account for a wide variety of phenomena in the literature on vision and ASD, and may well have broader implications for understanding the condition as a whole.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Added noise in the internal representations of faces could make the identities of new faces harder to learn, subtle facial expressions harder to distinguish, and the eye regions of faces less distinct and salient.

    “Added noise in the internal representations of faces could make the identities of new faces harder to learn, subtle facial expressions harder to distinguish and the eye regions of faces less distinct and salient.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
153 of 153

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    HFA and AS correspond to differing severities of ASD.

    “(assuming, of course, that HFA and AS correspond to differing severities of ASD)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The diagnostic labels (ASD, HFA, AS) used across the reviewed studies refer to comparable populations.

    “The participants in Herrington et al. (2007) were a group of 10 adult males diagnosed with AS and 10 age-, sex-and IQ-matched controls.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The tasks used in the reviewed studies measure the cognitive or neural processes they are intended to measure.

    “The task used by Herrington et al. (2007) was to identify a 1s display as either intact or scrambled”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Eye contact or direct gaze is particularly aversive for people with ASD.

    “This result has obvious implications for the notion that eye contact can be particularly aversive for people with ASD.”
    “This tendency could, in turn, arise from the well known aversion to direct gaze in ASD.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The neural basis for colour vision anomalies in ASD involves parvo- and koniocellular pathways and the ventral stream.

    “the neural basis for which must surely involve parvo-and koniocellular pathways and the ventral stream”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Franklin et al.'s (in press) result on reduced chromatic discrimination in ASD is replicable.

    “assuming that Franklin et al.'s (in press) result is replicable.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Atypical visual processing is widely documented in ASD, with alterations in basic perceptual functions including contrast sensitivity, boundary detection, field of view size, and color perception.

    “Atypical visual processing has been widely documented in individuals with ASD (see Simmons et al., 2009 for a review), with alterations in basic perceptual functions, including contrast sensitivity (Behrmann et al., 2006, Bertone et al., 2003), boundary detection (Vandenbroucke et al., 2008), field of view size (Song et al., 2015) and color perception (Franklin et al., 2008).”

    From The impact of atypical sensory processing on social impairments in autism spectrum disorder (2018) · cites this paper as Simmons et al., 2009

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Claim of only one published face-response MEG study conflicts with an earlier example

    Minor

    The review identifies Bailey et al. as the only published MEG study of responses to faces in ASD, but it previously describes a published study by Kylliäinen et al. measuring MEG responses to faces in children with ASD.

  • Claim of no stereopsis work conflicts with an earlier stereotest report

    Minor

    The review says no work has been done on stereopsis, but earlier reports stereopsis testing in 34 children, including the number who failed the Lang stereotest.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Jennings, W. B. (1973). A study of the preference for affective cues in autistic children. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Memphis State University.
  2. Mitchell, 2005, Abnormal motion perception in autism: Implications for primacy, heterogeneity, diagnosis and further research, Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive, 23, 143
  3. Ruhl, 1995, The intelligence structure of individuals with autism, Zeitschrift fur Kinder und Jugendpsychiatrie, 23, 95
  4. Van der Geest, 2003, Looking behavior in autism: From saccade to face fixation, Consensus in Child Neurology, 65, 68

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Simmons, D. R., Robertson, A. E., McKay, L. S., Toal, E., McAleer, P., & Pollick, F. E.
Affiliations
University of Glasgow (GB)
Corresponding author
Simmons, David R.
ORCID
Venue
Vision Research
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2009-11
Volume
49
Issue
22
Pages
2705-2739
ISSN
0042-6989 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.visres.2009.08.005
OpenAlex
W1982518229
Semantic Scholar
ecdd4731e197f4afda804602f533565c19ffc271
Cited by
827
References
443
Citations by year
2026: 30 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 78 · 2016: 55 · 2015: 64 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 31
FWCI
2.08
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Vision Research (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Discovery Research Portal (University of Dundee) (submittedVersion)
  • ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • ESRC (RES-060-25-0010)
  • Autism Speaks (1428)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
Keywords
autism spectrum disorder, visual processing, sensory processing, visual perception, autism theory, genetic aetiology
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Child, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Humans, Models, Neurological, Models, Psychological, Motion Perception, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Perceptual Disorders, Vision Disorders, Visual Perception, Contrast Sensitivity, Color Vision, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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