Childhood abuse and reduced cortical thickness in brain regions involved in emotional processing
Open accessAbstract
Background: Alterations in gray matter development represent a potential pathway through which childhood abuse is associated with psychopathology. Several prior studies find reduced volume and thickness of prefrontal (PFC) and temporal cortex regions in abused compared with nonabused adolescents, although most prior research is based on adults and volume‐based measures. This study tests the hypothesis that child abuse, independent of parental education, predicts reduced cortical thickness in prefrontal and temporal cortices as well as reduced gray mater volume (GMV) in subcortical regions during adolescence. Methods: Structural MRI scans were obtained from 21 adolescents exposed to physical and/or sexual abuse and 37 nonabused adolescents (ages 13–20). Abuse was operationalized using dichotomous and continuous measures. We examined associations between abuse and brain structure in several a priori‐defined regions, controlling for parental education, age, sex, race, and total brain volume for subcortical GMV. Significance was evaluated at p < .05 with a false discovery rate correction. Results: Child abuse exposure and severity were associated with reduced thickness in ventromedial prefrontal cortex (PFC), right lateral orbitofrontal cortex, right inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral parahippocampal gyrus (PHG), left temporal pole, and bilateral inferior, right middle, and right superior temporal gyri. Neither abuse measure predicted cortical surface area or subcortical GMV. Bilateral PHG thickness was inversely related to externalizing symptoms. Conclusions: Child abuse, an experience characterized by a high degree of threat, is associated with reduced cortical thickness in ventromedial and ventrolateral PFC and medial and lateral temporal cortex in adolescence. Reduced PHG thickness may be a mediator linking abuse with externalizing psychopathology, although prospective research is needed to evaluate this possibility.
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- Findingown data
Abuse severity across the full sample was inversely related to cortical thickness in the same regions as abuse exposure, except the left lateral orbitofrontal cortex.
“Similarly, abuse severity across the full sample was inversely related to cortical thickness in these regions except the left lateral OFC (Figure 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Left parahippocampal gyrus thickness was inversely related to externalizing symptoms.
“In contrast, cortical thickness in the left PHG (β=−.36, p=.007, FDR-corrected p=.05) and right PHG (β= −.35, p=.009, FDR-corrected p=.05) was inversely related to externalizing symptoms (Figure 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Cortical surface area was not associated with abuse exposure or abuse severity in any of the regions of interest.
“Cortical surface area was not associated with abuse exposure or abuse severity in any of the ROIs (all FDR-corrected p>.70).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Cortical thickness was not associated with internalizing symptoms in the regions that differed between abused and non-abused adolescents.
“Cortical thickness was not associated with internalizing symptoms in these regions (all FDR-corrected p>.33).”
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In follow-up analyses controlling for parahippocampal gyrus thickness, abuse exposure was significantly associated with externalizing psychopathology.
“Follow-up analyses regressing externalizing psychopathology on both abuse exposure and PHG thickness revealed a significant association with maltreatment (left PHG: β=.41, p=.002; right PHG: β=.39, p=.004) but not PHG thickness (left: β= −.04, p=.79; right: β= −.07, p=.59).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Right parahippocampal gyrus thickness was inversely related to externalizing symptoms.
“In contrast, cortical thickness in the left PHG (β=−.36, p=.007, FDR-corrected p=.05) and right PHG (β= −.35, p=.009, FDR-corrected p=.05) was inversely related to externalizing symptoms (Figure 2).”
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Associations between abuse severity and cortical thickness were non-significant when tested in the abused group only.
“Associations with abuse severity were non-significant when tested in the abused group only.”
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Orbitofrontal and ventromedial prefrontal cortex thickness was not associated with internalizing or externalizing psychopathology in the current study.
“However, OFC/vmPFC thickness was not associated with internalizing or externalizing psychopathology in the current study.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In follow-up analyses controlling for abuse exposure, parahippocampal gyrus thickness was not significantly associated with externalizing psychopathology.
“Follow-up analyses regressing externalizing psychopathology on both abuse exposure and PHG thickness revealed a significant association with maltreatment (left PHG: β=.41, p=.002; right PHG: β=.39, p=.004) but not PHG thickness (left: β= −.04, p=.79; right: β= −.07, p=.59).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Greater externalizing psychopathology was associated with thinner parahippocampal gyrus.
“A particularly noteworthy result involved PHG thickness and its association with externalizing psychopathology.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“Higher levels of externalizing psychopathology were associated with reduced thickness of the PHG.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
- Findingown data
Childhood abuse exposure was associated with reduced cortical thickness in the ventromedial and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and temporal cortex during adolescence.
“Exposure to childhood abuse was associated with reduced cortical thickness in the ventromedial and ventrolateral PFC and temporal cortex in adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Cortical thickness and surface area are associated with child and adolescent mental disorders, including anxiety, depression, conduct disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
“Cortical thickness and surface area are associated with child/adolescent mental disorders, including anxiety, depression, conduct disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)(Ducharme et al., 2014; Fairchild et al., 2015; Foland-Ross et al., 2015; McLaughlin, Sheridan, Winter, et al., 2014).”
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- cites Fairchild et al., 2015
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- cites Foland-Ross et al., 2015
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- Premisecitation
Lower socioeconomic status is associated with reduced volume in association cortex that interacts with age, particularly in prefrontal cortex.
“Lower SES is associated with global surface area reductions throughout prefrontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital cortices (Noble et al., 2015), and reduced volume in association cortex that interacts with age, particularly in the PFC (Noble, Houston, Kan, & Sowell, 2012).”
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- Premisecitation
The most consistent findings in maltreatment research arise in ventromedial prefrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and lateral temporal cortex.
“In general, the most consistent findings arise in ventromedial PFC (vmPFC), dorsolateral PFC, and lateral temporal cortex (De Brito et al., 2013; Edmiston et al., 2011; Hanson et al., 2010; Kelly et al., 2013, 2015, 2016).”
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- cites Edmiston et al., 2011
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- cites Hanson et al., 2010
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- Premiseown data
Abuse is associated with more focal differences in prefrontal and temporal cortices.
“In contrast, abuse is associated with more focal differences in the prefrontal and temporal cortices (Table S1).”
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- Premisecitation
Only two research groups have examined cortical thickness in adolescents exposed to maltreatment.
“To our knowledge, only two research groups have examined cortical thickness in adolescents exposed to maltreatment (Kelly et al., 2013; Whittle et al., 2013), and in one of these studies adolescents were not recruited based on maltreatment exposure and had low levels of maltreatment (Whittle et al., 2013).”
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- cites Whittle et al., 2013
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- Premisecitation
Most existing studies are based on adults who retrospectively report on maltreatment exposure when they were children.
“Second, most existing studies are based on adults who retrospectively report on maltreatment exposure when they were children (Lim et al., 2014; Teicher, Anderson, & Polcari, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Lim et al., 2014
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- cites Teicher, Anderson, & Polcari, 2012
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- Premisecitation
Hippocampal and prefrontal cortex volume reductions have been linked to risk for later internalizing psychopathology following childhood maltreatment.
“For example, hippocampal and PFC volume reductions have been linked to risk for later internalizing psychopathology following childhood maltreatment (Gorka, Hanson, Radtke, & Hariri, 2014; Rao et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Gorka, Hanson, Radtke, & Hariri, 2014
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- cites Rao et al., 2010
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- Premisecitation
Independent lines of maltreatment and psychopathology research on neural structure implicate medial and lateral temporal and prefrontal cortices.
“Independent lines of maltreatment and psychopathology research on neural structure implicate medial and lateral temporal and prefrontal cortices (Lim et al., 2014; Noordermeer, Luman, & Oosterlaan, 2016; Shang et al., 2014; Woon & Hedges, 2008) generating interest in the inter-relationships among the three variables.”
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- cites Noordermeer, Luman, & Oosterlaan, 2016
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- cites Shang et al., 2014
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- Premisecitation
Structural perturbations in the orbitofrontal and ventromedial prefrontal cortex are linked not only to maltreatment but also to mental illness across a range of internalizing and externalizing disorders.
“Indeed, structural perturbations in the OFC/vmPFC are linked not only to maltreatment, but also to mental illness across a range of internalizing and externalizing disorders (Fairchild et al., 2015; McLaughlin, Sheridan, Winter, et al., 2014; Price & Drevets, 2010).”
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- cites McLaughlin, Sheridan, Winter, et al., 2014
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- cites Price & Drevets, 2010
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- Premisecitation
The ventromedial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex region is the most consistently associated with maltreatment in previous research.
“This region is the most consistently associated with maltreatment in previous research (De Brito et al., 2013; Edmiston et al., 2011; Hanson et al., 2010; Kelly et al., 2015; Lim et al., 2014).”
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- cites Edmiston et al., 2011
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- cites Hanson et al., 2010
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- Premisecitation
In humans, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is activated during extinction recall.
“In humans, the vmPFC is activated during extinction recall (Milad et al., 2007; Phelps, Delgado, Nearing, & LeDoux, 2004), and vmPFC/OFC thickness is positively associated with extinction memory (Hartley, Fischl, & Phelps, 2011; Milad et al., 2005).”
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- cites Phelps, Delgado, Nearing, & LeDoux, 2004
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- Premisecitation
Ventromedial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex thickness is positively associated with extinction memory.
“In humans, the vmPFC is activated during extinction recall (Milad et al., 2007; Phelps, Delgado, Nearing, & LeDoux, 2004), and vmPFC/OFC thickness is positively associated with extinction memory (Hartley, Fischl, & Phelps, 2011; Milad et al., 2005).”
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- cites Milad et al., 2005
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- Interpretationcitation
Altered orbitofrontal cortex structure in adolescence following maltreatment exposure is consistent with translational research in rodents and non-human primates showing that early life stress influences prefrontal cortex development.
“Altered OFC structure in adolescence following maltreatment exposure is consistent with translational research in rodents and non-human primates showing that early life stress influences PFC development (Arnsten, 2009).”
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- Interpretationreasoning
The current study is the first independent replication of prior findings of reduced orbitofrontal cortex thickness in abused adolescents.
“Thus, the current findings reflect an important contribution to the maltreatment literature as the first independent replication of prior findings of reduced OFC thickness in abused adolescents.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Development influences cortical thickness and surface area differently.
“Moreover, cortical thickness and surface area are differentially influenced by development (Raznahan et al., 2011; Wierenga et al., 2014).”
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- cites Wierenga et al., 2014
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- Interpretationreasoning
Because volume combines thickness and surface area, volume-based methods may hide important details about the specificity of cortical thinning after maltreatment.
“Given that volume conflates thickness and surface area, volume-based methods may obscure important information about the specificity of cortical thinning following maltreatment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
These results agree with the only two earlier studies of cortical thickness and surface area in overlapping maltreated and non-maltreated adolescent samples, which found prefrontal perturbations for thickness but not surface area.
“These findings are consistent with the only prior two studies of cortical thickness and surface area in overlapping samples of maltreated and non-maltreated adolescents, which found perturbations in the PFC for thickness but not surface area (Kelly et al., 2013, 2016).”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Reduced thickness in these regions may be linked to disruptions in several forms of emotion regulation, not only extinction recall.
“Thus, reduced cortical thickness in these regions could relate to disruptions in multiple forms of emotional regulation beyond just extinction recall.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In a prior fMRI study with some overlapping participants, abused adolescents showed greater dorsolateral and dorsomedial prefrontal activation than non-abused adolescents during cognitive reappraisal.
“Consistent with this possibility, in an fMRI study using some of the same participants examined in the current report (McLaughlin, Peverill, Gold, Alves, & Sheridan, 2015), we observed increased dorsolateral and dorsomedial PFC activation in abused relative to non-abused adolescents during cognitive reappraisal.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McLaughlin, Peverill, Gold, Alves, & Sheridan, 2015
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- Study design and conductnone given
The sample size was small, especially in the abused group.
“First, the sample size was small, particularly in the abused group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The study lacked data on actual exposure to deprivation.
“We did not have data on actual exposure to deprivation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Different developmental trajectories may partly account for why abuse exposure is associated with cortical thickness but not surface area in adolescence.
“Distinct developmental trajectories might partially explain differential associations of abuse exposure with cortical thickness, but not surface area, in adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The sample had low levels of psychopathology, which may have limited the ability to detect associations between psychopathology and brain structure.
“Second, this sample had low levels of psychopathology, which may have restricted the ability to detect associations between psychopathology and brain structure.”
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- May combine two claims. 27
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 24
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Findingown dataNeither abuse exposure nor abuse severity was significantly associated with regional gray matter volume in any subcortical region of interest.
“Neither abuse exposure nor abuse severity were significantly associated with regional GMV in any of the subcortical ROIs (all FDR-corrected p>.90).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAbuse exposure was associated with reduced cortical thickness in ventromedial prefrontal cortex, bilateral orbitofrontal cortex, right inferior frontal gyrus, left temporal pole, bilateral parahippocampal gyrus, bilateral inferior temporal gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, and right superior temporal gyrus.
“Abuse exposure was associated with reduced cortical thickness in ventromedial PFC, bilateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), left temporal pole, bilateral parahippocampal gyrus (PHG), bilateral inferior temporal gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, and right superior temporal gyrus.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataBoth internalizing and externalizing symptoms were elevated in the abused participants.
“Both internalizing and externalizing symptoms were elevated in the abused participants (Table 1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataHigher abuse severity was observed in abused compared with non-abused adolescents, and this difference remained significant after controlling for parental education, race, age, and sex.
“As expected, higher abuse severity (CTQ score) was observed in abused vs. non-abused adolescents (β=.74, p<.001), which remained significant after controlling for parental education, race, age, and sex (β=.75, p<.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataChildhood abuse predicted reduced cortical thickness in the lateral prefrontal cortex and in both medial and lateral temporal cortex.
“Abuse also predicted thickness in lateral PFC and both medial and lateral temporal cortex.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAbuse did not predict differences in cortical surface area, unlike cortical thickness.
“Unlike cortical thickness, abuse did not predict differences in cortical surface area.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataNo abuse-related differences were found in gray matter volume of subcortical regions, similar to cortical surface area.
“Similar to cortical surface area, no abuse-related differences were detected in the GMV of subcortical regions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationLower socioeconomic status is associated with global surface area reductions throughout prefrontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital cortices.
“Lower SES is associated with global surface area reductions throughout prefrontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital cortices (Noble et al., 2015), and reduced volume in association cortex that interacts with age, particularly in the PFC (Noble, Houston, Kan, & Sowell, 2012).”
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PremisecitationCortical thickness and surface area reflect distinct factors, show unique developmental trajectories, and relate to distinct features of brain structure.
“Cortical thickness and surface area reflect distinct factors, show unique developmental trajectories, and relate to distinct features of brain structure (Raznahan et al., 2011; Wierenga, Langen, Oranje, & Durston, 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Raznahan et al., 2011
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- cites Wierenga, Langen, Oranje, & Durston, 2014
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Study design and conductreasoningContinuous associations within the abused group only restrict the range of the severity scale and have limited statistical power.
“Continuous associations within the abused group only (N=21) restrict the range of the severity scale by examining only the most severe cases and ignoring cases at the low end of the scale and have limited statistical power, but are reported for thoroughness.”
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PremisecitationA recent meta-analysis based largely on adult participants linked maltreatment to reduced gray matter volume in ventral prefrontal cortex and superior temporal gyrus, extending to amygdala, insula, parahippocampal gyrus, and middle temporal gyrus.
“Notably, a recent meta-analysis based largely on adult participants linked maltreatment to reduced GM volume in ventral expanses of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and superior temporal gyrus (STG), extending to the amygdala, insula, parahippocampal gyrus (PHG) and middle temporal gyrus (MTG)(Lim, Radua, & Rubia, 2014).”
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PremisecitationChild abuse is associated with elevated risk for a wide range of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology in children and adolescents.
“Child abuse is associated with elevated risk for a wide range of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology in children and adolescents (McLaughlin et al., 2012).”
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Study design and conductown dataThe abused and non-abused groups did not differ in age, sex, IQ, or parental education.
“Groups did not differ in age, sex, IQ, or parental education, but abused participants were more likely to be non-white.”
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Study design and conductown dataAll analyses controlled for parental education, race, age, and sex; subcortical gray matter volume analyses additionally controlled for intracranial volume.
“All analyses controlled for parental education, race, age, and sex; subcortical GMV analyses additionally controlled for intracranial volume (ICV).”
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Study design and conductown dataAbused participants were more likely to be non-white than non-abused participants.
“Groups did not differ in age, sex, IQ, or parental education, but abused participants were more likely to be non-white.”
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Study design and conductown dataA false discovery rate correction was applied separately to the cortical thickness, surface area, and subcortical gray matter volume analyses to control for multiple comparisons.
“To control for multiple comparisons, a false discovery rate (FDR) correction was applied to the cortical thickness, surface area, and subcortical GMV analyses, separately (alpha=.05).”
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Study design and conductnone givenCortical regions of interest were a priori-defined in medial and lateral prefrontal and temporal cortex regions associated with abuse exposure.
“A priori-defined cortical ROIs were selected in medial and lateral PFC and temporal cortex regions associated with abuse exposure (see Table S1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationWhittle and colleagues statistically controlled for socioeconomic status in a community sample with relatively low maltreatment exposure, but did not find maltreatment-related ventromedial prefrontal or orbitofrontal cortex differences.
“Whittle and colleagues (2013), statistically controlled for SES in a community sample with relatively low maltreatment exposure, but did not find maltreatment-related vmPFC/OFC differences.”
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PremisecitationOne research group reported on overlapping samples in two studies comparing maltreated and non-maltreated adolescents who did not differ on socioeconomic status, and observed differences in ventromedial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex thickness but not surface area or gyrification.
“One research group (Kelly et al., 2013, 2016) reported on overlapping samples in two studies comparing maltreated and non-maltreated adolescents, who did not differ on SES. They observed differences in vmPFC/OFC thickness, but not surface area or gyrification.”
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PremisecitationThe field is in general agreement that tests of statistical mediation should not be conducted in cross-sectional studies due to substantial issues with interpretation.
“However, the field is in general agreement that tests of statistical mediation should not be conducted in cross-sectional studies, such as this one, due to substantial issues with interpretation (Maxwell & Cole, 2007).”
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PremisecitationMaltreatment-related gray matter volume reductions in the hippocampus, parahippocampus, and fusiform gyrus predicted severity of substance use relapse.
“Maltreatment-related GMV reductions in the hippocampus, parahippocampus, and fusiform gyrus predicted severity of substance use relapse in a recent study (Van Dam, Rando, Potenza, Tuit, & Sinha, 2014).”
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PremisecitationEarly life stress influences prefrontal cortex development in rodents and non-human primates.
“Altered OFC structure in adolescence following maltreatment exposure is consistent with translational research in rodents and non-human primates showing that early life stress influences PFC development (Arnsten, 2009).”
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PremisecitationThe ventromedial prefrontal cortex promotes the maintenance of fear extinction in both rodents and humans.
“The vmPFC promotes the maintenance of fear extinction in both rodents and humans (Milad & Quirk, 2012).”
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Interpretationown dataTo the extent that mediation is possible in this cross-sectional dataset, abuse appears to mediate the relationship between parahippocampal gyrus thickness and externalizing psychopathology.
“To the extent that mediation is possible in this cross-sectional dataset, abuse appears to be mediating the relationship between PHG thickness and externalizing psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningTaken together, the current and earlier results connect childhood abuse to both lower brain structure and different prefrontal recruitment during emotion regulation.
“Thus, the current and prior findings link childhood abuse to both reduced brain structure and altered patterns of PFC recruitment during emotion regulation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationStudies of neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism have similarly found reduced thickness with comparable surface area.
“Similar findings of reduced thickness but comparable surface area have been observed in studies of neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism (Wallace et al., 2015).”
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PremisecitationThe parahippocampal gyrus is anatomically connected to the hippocampus and orbitofrontal cortex and sends substantial input to the hippocampus.
“Although research typically does not emphasize the role of the PHG in emotion, the PHG is anatomically connected to both the hippocampus and the OFC, and has significant input to the hippocampus (Witter, Wouterlood, Naber, & Van Haeften, 2000), supporting its role in memory as well as emotion processing and regulation.”
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PremisecitationCortical surface area follows a curvilinear developmental path, rising in early adolescence and then falling through middle adulthood.
“For example, cortical surface area follows a curvilinear developmental trajectory, increasing during early adolescence before decreasing through middle adulthood (Schnack et al., 2015).”
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PremisecitationCortical thickness and surface area appear to be genetically independent, even though each is highly heritable.
“Although each measure is highly heritable, cortical thickness and surface area appear to be genetically independent (Panizzon et al., 2009).”
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PremisecitationMaltreatment research mostly uses volume-based cortical measures, and a recent meta-analysis by Lim and colleagues also used volume-based methods.
“As shown in Table S1, however, maltreatment studies predominantly employ volume-based cortical measures and the recent meta-analysis by Lim and colleagues (2014) utilized volume-based methods.”
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InterpretationreasoningLower brain structure together with higher brain activation might indicate reduced neural efficiency or excitotoxicity.
“Reduced brain structure in the context of increased brain activation could reflect reduced neural efficiency or excitotoxicity.”
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PremisecitationEarlier studies have linked reduced structure in the parahippocampal gyrus and other temporal regions to conduct disorder, antisocial behavior, and ADHD.
“This is consistent with prior studies linking reduced structure in the PHG and other temporal lobe regions with conduct disorder (Huebner et al., 2008), antisocial behavior (Ermer, Cope, Nyalakanti, Calhoun, & Kiehl, 2013), and ADHD (Schweren et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Huebner et al., 2008
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- cites Ermer, Cope, Nyalakanti, Calhoun, & Kiehl, 2013
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- cites Schweren et al., 2015
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Study design and conductnone givenThe abused and non-abused adolescents were matched on age, but pubertal development was not measured.
“Fourth, although the abused and non-abused adolescents were matched on age, measures of pubertal development were not obtained.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe study used a cross-sectional design, measuring brain structure and psychopathology at the same time.
“Finally, this study utilized a cross-sectional design in which brain structure and psychopathology were measured concurrently.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationA recent meta-analysis of childhood maltreatment found gray matter volume differences in the amygdala but not the hippocampus.
“A recent meta-analysis of childhood maltreatment found GM volume differences in the amygdala, but not the hippocampus (Lim et al, 2014).”
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PremisecitationCortical thickness decreases steadily during childhood and adolescence.
“In contrast, cortical thickness declines steadily during childhood and adolescence (Ducharme et al., 2015; Schnack et al., 2015).”
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- cites Schnack et al., 2015
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Study design and conductown dataThese associations held when abuse was measured dichotomously and continuously, and they were independent of low SES.
“These associations were observed using both dichotomous and continuous measures of abuse, and were independent of low SES.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSome earlier pediatric studies reported volumetric differences in the amygdala and hippocampus, but results are inconsistent across studies.
“Although some prior pediatric studies showed volumetric differences in the amygdala and hippocampus, findings are inconsistent across studies (Table S1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Table S1
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThat meta-analysis included both pediatric and adult studies, and most participants were adults.
“However, the meta-analysis examined childhood maltreatment in pediatric and adult studies and most participants were adults.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lim et al, 2014
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationEarlier meta-analyses of pediatric studies found no hippocampal or amygdala volume differences linked to childhood maltreatment or PTSD in youths, though they included maltreated individuals with and without psychiatric diagnoses, especially PTSD.
“Earlier meta-analyses of pediatric studies did not find hippocampal or amygdala volume differences associated with childhood maltreatment or PTSD in youths (Karl et al., 2006; Woon & Hedges, 2008), although maltreated individuals both with and without psychiatric diagnoses, notably PTSD, were included.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Karl et al., 2006
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Woon & Hedges, 2008
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataBecause few abused adolescents in the current sample met PTSD criteria, the absence of amygdala differences might reflect sample characteristics.
“As few abused adolescents in the current sample met criteria for PTSD, the lack of amygdala differences could reflect sample features.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningUsing parental education as the SES measure and grouping all parents with less than a college education together may have obscured greater deprivation risk among parents with very low educational attainment.
“This may have obscured more profound risk for deprivation in parents with very low educational attainment, such as having a high-school education or less.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataFamily income was measured, but 20 participants had missing data, which limited statistical power to index SES using family income.
“Although we measured family income, 20 participants had missing data, resulting in limited statistical power to index SES using family income.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Alterations in gray matter development represent a potential pathway through which childhood abuse is associated with psychopathology.
“Alterations in gray matter (GM) development represent a potential pathway through which childhood abuse is associated with psychopathology.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Few studies examine whether maltreatment-related differences in brain structure are associated with psychopathology.
“However, few studies examine whether maltreatment-related differences in brain structure are associated with psychopathology.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Research on neural structure in children and adolescents exposed to maltreatment is scant, creating a critical need for replication across independent research groups and samples that use cortical thickness measures and control for other adverse environmental factors such as low socioeconomic status.
“Given scant research on neural structure with children and adolescents exposed to maltreatment, there is a critical need for replication across independent research groups and samples that both use cortical thickness measures and control for other adverse environmental factors, such as low SES.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most prior studies assess cortical volume, a composite of thickness, surface area, and folding.
“Most of these studies assess cortical volume, a composite of thickness, surface area, and folding.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Few studies directly test whether brain structure mediates the effects of maltreatment on psychopathology.
“Although few studies directly test whether brain structure mediates the effects of maltreatment on psychopathology, there are some initial positive findings for both internalizing and externalizing disorders in volume-based studies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Low socioeconomic status is associated with both maltreatment and brain structure.
“First, deprivation related to low socio-economic status (SES), which is associated with both maltreatment and brain structure, has rarely been controlled for in studies of maltreatment.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
A history of childhood abuse is correlated with reduced gray matter volume in PFC regions, including the vmPFC and orbital frontal cortex.
“In humans, experimental studies of chronic stress are not possible due to ethical concerns; however, there is evidence that a history of childhood abuse is correlated with reduced gray matter volume in PFC regions, including the vmPFC and orbital frontal cortex [145].”
From Prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and threat processing: implications for PTSD (2022) · cites this paper as [145]
The Results section (page unavailable) reports that childhood abuse was associated with reduced cortical thickness in the ventromedial PFC and orbitofrontal cortex. It does not report reduced gray matter volume in those regions; the paper measured gray matter volume only in subcortical regions. The Introduction discusses prior evidence of reduced prefrontal volume, but that does not establish the claim for the specified regions in this study. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredChanges in cortical networks are thought to be influenced by early environmental experiences including childhood abuse, urban upbringing, and screen time, and may have serious lifetime impacts on general cognitive ability, social-emotional behaviour, psychopathology, and substance use and abuse.
“Changes in these cortical networks are thought to be influenced by early environmental experiences, including childhood abuse [83], urban upbringing [84], and screen time [33], and may have serious lifetime impacts on general cognitive ability, social-emotional behaviour, psychopathology, and substance use and abuse.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Opposite mediation directions are proposed
MajorThe abstract proposes PHG thickness as a possible mediator between abuse and externalizing symptoms. The Results instead interpret the adjusted analysis as suggesting that abuse mediates the relationship between PHG thickness and those symptoms, reversing the proposed mediator.
“Reduced PHG thickness may be a mediator linking abuse with externalizing psychopathology, although prospective research is needed to evaluate this possibility.”
“To the extent that mediation is possible in this cross-sectional dataset, abuse appears to be mediating the relationship between PHG thickness and externalizing psychopathology.”
No citation lists for this paper
No citation lists for this paper yet — checked again daily.
References 60 · Cited by 164
- Authors
- Gold, A. L., Sheridan, M. A., Peverill, M., Busso, D. S., Lambert, H. K., Alves, S., Pine, D. S., & McLaughlin, K. A.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- Harvard Graduate School of Education Cambridge MA USA
- Corresponding author
- McLaughlin, Katie A.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-09-20
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1154-1164
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- PMC
- PMC5031358
- OpenAlex
- W2522927863
- Cited by
- 164
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 7
- FWCI
- 14.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (K01‐MH092526, K01‐MH092555)
- Charles H. Hood Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- childhood abuse, child physical abuse, child sexual abuse, cortical thickness, gray matter volume, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, temporal cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, temporal pole, externalizing problems, emotional processing, adolescents, brain structure
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Child Abuse, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Temporal Lobe, Prefrontal Cortex, Young Adult, Gray Matter
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