Body Cameras, Big Data, and Police Accountability

These stops and searches are less likely to lead to a finding of contraband or arrest, indicating poorer accuracy (lower hit rates) when young minority men are targeted.

“These stops and searches are less likely to lead to a finding of contraband or arrest, indicating poorer accuracy (lower hit rates) when young minority men are targeted (Gelman, Fagan, and Kiss 2007;Goel et al. 2017).”

• cites Gelman, Fagan, and Kiss 2007 sourcePartly supported

  Section 5.3 (page unavailable) reports that stops of Black and Hispanic people were less likely than stops of white people to lead to arrest, describing the former as less efficient. It does not report a comparable contraband-finding rate or establish this result specifically for young minority men. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Goel et al. 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Data from New York indicated that blacks and Hispanics are more likely to be stopped and frisked than whites, after controlling for precinct and rates of crime commission.

“Data from New York, one of the jurisdictions that collected stop and frisk data because of a court order, indicated that blacks and Hispanics are more likely to be stopped and frisked than whites, after controlling for precinct and rates of crime commission (Gelman, Fagan, and Kiss 2007;Goel et al. 2017).”

• cites Gelman, Fagan, and Kiss 2007 sourceSupported
• cites Goel et al. 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A recent study using computational linguistic techniques on 183 hours of Oakland police body camera videos found strong evidence that officers were less respectful to black persons stopped, after adjusting for potential confounders such as infraction severity and location.

“The utility of body camera data analytics is exemplified by a recent study using computational linguistic techniques on 183 hours of Oakland police body camera videos and finding strong evidence that officers were less respectful to black persons stopped, after adjusting for potential confounders such as infraction severity and location (Voigt et al. 2017).”

• cites Voigt et al. 2017 sourceSupported

The majority provided for retention of recordings relevant to civil suits at least until the disposition of the case, if not longer.

“The majority provided for retention of such recordings at least until the disposition of the case, if not longer (see Table 3).”

Where departments had provisions on recordings relevant to civil suits-most frequently provisions on recordings of uses of force-they tended to recognize the seriousness of the need to preserve the recordings.

“Where departments did have provisions on such recordings-most frequently provisions on recordings of uses of force-they tended to recognize the seriousness of the need to preserve the recordings.”

Eighty-eight of the major-city municipal police departments had piloted or deployed body cameras or had plans to do so.

“These inquiries and research found that eighty-eight of the major-city municipal police departments had piloted or deployed body cameras or had plans to do so.”

The majority of departments in the sample (70 percent) incorporate and follow state archival rules for the type of crime or the statute of limitations for the crime type, or mandate retention until case conclusion and even beyond.

“As Table 1 shows, the majority of departments in the sample (70 percent) incorporate and follow state archival rules for the type of crime or the statute of limitations for the crime type, or mandate retention until case conclusion and even beyond.”

Most departmental policies take the cautious course for recordings that capture information useful to a criminal prosecution.

“This study found that most departmental policies take the cautious course when it comes to recordings that capture information useful to a criminal prosecution.”

Even expanding the definition of the variable, about half the agencies in the sample had no provision on how long recordings relevant to civil suits should be retained.

“Even expanding the definition of the variable, about half the agencies in the sample had no provision on how long recordings relevant to civil suits should be retained.”

The cities represented in the sample of collected body camera policies had considerable diversity in city size and region.

“The cities represented in the sample of body camera policies collected had considerable diversity in terms of city size and region.”

The retention of recordings deemed non-evidentiary is much shorter.

“The retention of recordings deemed non-evidentiary is much shorter.”

Police department policies are split over the use of body camera recordings for officer monitoring and evaluation.

“Police department policies are split over the use of body camera recordings for officer monitoring and evaluation.”

• Also stated in: § C. Limits on Use for Officer Monitoring and Evaluation · plain

  “As Table 4 shows, the policies range widely in approach from mandating supervisor review of videos for evaluation and regular audits to prohibiting supervisor review of videos for evaluation absent an adverse event trigger such as the use of force or complaint (see Table 4).”

For non-evidentiary data retention, the majority of agencies (58 percent) retain the data for six months or less.

“In contrast, for non-evidentiary data retention, the storage time is much shorter, with the majority of agencies (58 percent) retaining the data for six months or less (see Table 2).”

For misdemeanors, the archival storage time specified in the policies generally runs between one and three years.

“For misdemeanors, the archival storage time specified in the policies generally runs between one and three years.”

Departmental body-worn camera policies tend to be new additions separate from older policies governing physical evidence or even dash camera videos.

“Departmental body-worn camera policies tend to be new additions separate from older policies governing physical evidence or even dash camera videos.”

Among departments that mandate audits and regular supervisor review, the predominant use of this strategy is to ensure compliance with the rules governing body camera usage rather than to detect wrongdoing.

“Among the departments that mandate audits and regular supervisor review, the predominant use of this strategy is to ensure compliance with the rules governing body camera usage rather than to detect wrongdoing.”

There are more omissions and doubt for recordings that may be relevant in a civil suit against the police than for recordings relevant to a criminal case pursued by officers.

“But there are more omissions and doubt when it comes to recordings that may be relevant in a civil suit against the police rather than a criminal case pursued by officers.”

Analyses of body camera policies collected from police departments across the nation reveal significant policy hurdles.

“Analyses of body camera policies collected from police departments across the nation reveal significant policy hurdles.”

Where legislatures have made provision for the retention of evidence for civil suits or preservation of evidence, departmental policies honor that democratic determination.

“Where legislatures have made provision for the retention of evidence for civil suits or preservation of evidence, departmental policies honor that democratic determination.”

Two more agencies limited the ability of internal affairs or similar internal investigations units from having access to recordings absent a formal complaint or similar trigger.

“Two more agencies limited the ability of internal affairs or similar internal investigations units from having access to recordings absent a formal complaint or similar trigger.”

Philadelphia's policy provides that minor disciplinary offenses recorded while performing duties that would not otherwise become known but for wearing a Body-Worn Camera will not adversely affect an officer's career.

“To effectively perform their duties, Officers must have a level of comfort in which minor disciplinary offenses recorded while performing their duties that would not otherwise become known but for wearing a Body-Worn Camera, will not adversely affect an officer's career.”

• cites Phila.Police Dep't 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Two more departments expressly indicated to supervisors that they have discretion to resolve minor policy violations caught on camera through training or counseling rather than formal discipline.

“Two more departments took a softer approach, expressly indicating to supervisors that they have discretion to resolve minor policy violations caught on camera through training or counseling rather than formal discipline.”

Police labor unions play an important role in negotiating limits on the use of recordings for officer monitoring, evaluation, and discipline.

“Police labor unions play an important role in negotiating limits on the use of recordings for officer monitoring, evaluation, and discipline.”

Eleven departments in the sample had provisions barring the use of recordings to search for violations.

“As Table 5 summarizes, eleven departments in the sample had provisions barring the use of recordings to search for violations.”

In Oklahoma City, the police union compelled a redo of the body camera policy after an arbitrator sided with the union's grievance that the policy was not negotiated with the union.

“For example, in Oklahoma City, the police union compelled a redo of the body camera policy after an arbitrator sided with the union's grievance that the policy was not negotiated with the union (Brigham 2016).”

• cites Brigham 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Some departments are starting to pave the policy pathways for realizing the potential of body camera data.

“Some departments are starting to pave the policy pathways for realizing this potential.”

Several departments that permit or even require supervisor review of recordings also contain protections against discipline for minor violations.

“Indeed, several of the departments that permit or even require supervisor review of recordings also contain protections against discipline for minor violations.”

St. Paul's policy provides that supervisors may not access or review BWC Data for the purpose of surveillance of any employee.

“For example, St. Paul's policy captures the surveillance concerns of officers explicitly, providing:”

• cites St.Paul Police Dep't 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Pursuant to the Seattle Memorandum of Agreement, there will be no discipline that follows from not recording a particular incident with BWV.

“Pursuant to that agreement, there will be no discipline that follows from not recording a particular incident with BWV.(Seattle Police Dep't 2016)”

• cites Seattle Police Dep't 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A few departments are building the human resources capacity and procedures to realize the full potential of body camera data.

“A few departments are also building the human resources capacity and procedures to realize the full potential of body camera data.”

Ten more departments stated that minor violations discovered during viewing the recordings should not be the basis for formal discipline.

“Ten more stated that minor violations discovered during viewing the recordings should not be the basis for formal discipline.”

About half the departments in the sample authorized supervisors to review recordings generally, required regular supervisor review of a sample of recordings, and/or authorized audits of recordings for compliance purposes.

“About half the departments in the sample authorized supervisors to review recordings generally, required regular supervisor review of a sample of recordings, and/or authorized audits of recordings for compliance purposes.”

A prevalent approach, even among departments that use supervisor review and audits to check on compliance with body camera recording mandates, is to specify protections against the use of the videos for disciplinary purposes.

“A prevalent approach, even among departments that use supervisor review and audits to check on compliance with body camera recording mandates, is to specify protections against the use of the videos for disciplinary purposes.”

Many departments are turning to cloud data storage under contracts negotiated with private companies.

“Many departments are turning to cloud data storage under contracts negotiated with private companies.”

• cites Callahan 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The approach of incorporating legislatively set schedules is much more prevalent for data deemed evidentiary because legislatures are more likely to have spoken on the issue.

“The approach of incorporating legislatively set schedules is much more prevalent for data deemed evidentiary because legislatures are more likely to have spoken on the issue.”

One of the greatest expenses of putting body cameras on police-far exceeding the costs of the cameras themselves-is storing the vast volumes of data that result.

“One of the greatest expenses of putting body cameras on police-far exceeding the costs of the cameras themselves-is storing the vast volumes of data that result (Mearian 2015;Sanburn 2015).”

• cites Mearian 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sanburn 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Policies that deploy body camera videos to oversee the police typically use the strategy with the more circumscribed aim of ensuring that officers do not subvert their self-surveillance.

“The policies that deploy body camera videos to oversee the police thus typically use the strategy with the more circumscribed aim of ensuring that officers do not subvert their self-surveillance.”

As data multiply from dash cameras and police body cameras, the traditional method of storage using on-site servers or CDs in an evidence room is becoming infeasible for many departments.

“As data multiply from dash cameras and police body cameras, the traditional method of storage using on-site servers or CDs in an evidence room is becoming infeasible for many departments (Mearian 2015).”

• cites Mearian 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The challenge is not undervaluing the import of preserving video for accountability purposes, but of thinking of recordings as evidence in such cases in addition to traditional prosecutions.

“This suggests the challenge is not one of undervaluing the import of preserving video for accountability purposes, but of thinking of recordings as evidence in such cases in addition to traditional prosecutions.”

Departments have halted body camera plans out of concern that it would be too costly to store video for the periods designated under state standards.

“Departments have halted body camera plans out of concern that it would be too costly to store video for the periods designated under state standards (Callahan 2016).”

• cites Callahan 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Because there is effectively no remedy, knock-and-announce violation cases are unlikely to make it into courts.

“Because there is effectively no remedy, the cases are unlikely to make it into courts.”

The inter-rater reliability evaluation found substantial agreement between the initial coding.

“The evaluation found substantial agreement between the initial coding.”

Deletion is a major way to reduce the costs of adopting body cameras.

“Deletion is also a major way to reduce the costs of adopting body cameras.”

Court records are not enough to give a fuller picture of how police power is experienced on the ground.

“But court records are not enough to give a fuller picture of how police power is experienced on the ground.”

Body cameras offer a dramatically wider window into what is actually happening in everyday encounters that may never make it into court, a citizen complaint, or a formal report.

“Body cameras offer a dramatically wider window into what is actually happening in everyday encounters that may never make it into court, a citizen complaint, or a formal report (Fan 2017).”

• cites Fan 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Increasing the retention period to 190 days from thirty days would multiply storage costs five-to tenfold according to the experience of the Clarksville, Indiana police department.

“Increasing the retention period to 190 days from thirty days would multiply storage costs five-to tenfold according to the experience of the Clarksville, Indiana police department (Callahan 2016).”

• cites Callahan 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Some data are emerging to support the hypothesis that people on all sides of a police encounter will behave better when they know they are being recorded.

“Some data are emerging to support the hypothesis (Katz et al. 2014;White 2014;Ariel, Farrar, and Sutherland 2015).”

• cites Katz et al. 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites White 2014Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ariel, Farrar, and Sutherland 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Storage is particularly challenging for mid-size departments of fifty to 250 officers with mid-size budgets and infrastructure.

“Storage is particularly challenging for mid-size departments of fifty to 250 officers with mid-size budgets and infrastructure (Callahan 2016).”

• cites Callahan 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Developers are using machine learning to address the challenges of automated analyses of video in motion.

“Developers are using machine learning to address the challenges of automated analyses of video in motion (Punyamurthula Interview 2016).”

• cites Punyamurthula Interview 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Most body camera policies require activation during a broad array of law enforcement activities, such as stop and frisks, searches, and responses to calls for service.

“Most body camera policies require activation during a broad array of law enforcement activities, such as stop and frisks, searches, and responses to calls for service (Fan 2017).”

• cites Fan 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It costs one department approximately $111,000 to store video from fifty cameras on the cloud for two years.

“It costs one department approximately $111,000 to store video from fifty cameras on the cloud for two years (Police Exec.Research Forum 2014).”

• cites Police Exec.Research Forum 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Another department of that size reported costs of $2 million a year, mostly for data storage, to put cameras on its nine-hundred officers.

“Another department of that size reported costs of $2 million a year, mostly for data storage, to put cameras on its ninehundred officers (Police Exec. Research Forum 2014).”

• cites Police Exec. Research Forum 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Time, technology, and competition among storage providers are likely to take care of the cost concerns that create pressure to delete videos.

“Time, technology, and competition among storage providers are likely to take care of the cost concerns that create pressure to delete videos.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Cost concerns create pressure to delete body camera videos.

When department management unrolls a body camera program and policy without union negotiations, the plans can derail.

“When department management unrolls a body camera program and policy without union negotiations, the plans can derail.”

Justice Anthony Kennedy has left open the possibility of revisiting and revising rules and remedies if data on a recurring problem in need of redress arise.

“Justice Anthony Kennedy, often the crucial swing voter on the Supreme Court, has left open the possibility of revisiting and revising rules and remedies if data on a recurring problem in need of redress arise (Hudson v. Michigan, 547 U.S. 586, 604 (2006) (Kennedy, J., concurring)).”

• cites Hudson v. Michigan, 547 U.S. 586, 604 (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Even the Supreme Court is influenced by information on whether a contested police practice is widespread or an isolated incident.

“But even the Supreme Court is influenced by information on whether a contested police practice is widespread or an isolated incident (Atwater v. City of Lago Vista 2001, 347).”

• cites Atwater v. City of Lago Vista 2001, 347Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Major technology companies are entering the field with products and new technologies to offer greater security at reduced data storage expense.

“Major technology companies are entering the field with products and new technologies to offer greater security at reduced data storage expense (Van Sack 2015).”

• cites Van Sack 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The protections reflect the concerns of line-level officers over surveillance and potential harassment by their superiors for what officers perceive as minor violations.

“The protections reflect the concerns of line-level officers over surveillance and potential harassment by their superiors for what officers perceive as minor violations.”