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Cited by 457Policing Practices and PerceptionsCriminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisCriminal Justice and Penology

Street stops and police legitimacy: Teachable moments in young urban men’s legal socialization

Open access
Tyler, Tom R., Fagan, Jeffrey, Geller, Amanda·2014·Journal of Empirical Legal Studies
DOI 10.1111/jels.12055
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Abstract

An examination of the influence of street stops on the legal socialization of young men showed an association between the number of police stops they see or experience and a diminished sense of police legitimacy. This association was not primarily a consequence of the number of stops or of the degree of police intrusion during those stops. Rather, the impact of involuntary contact with the police was mediated by evaluations of the fairness of police actions and judgments about whether the police were acting lawfully. Whether the police were viewed as exercising their authority fairly and lawfully shaped the impact of stops on respondents' general judgments about police legitimacy. Fairness and lawfulness judgments, in turn, were influenced by the number of stops and the degree of police intrusion during those stops. Similarly, judgments of justice and lawfulness shaped the estimated influence of judgments of the general character of police behavior in the community on general perceptions of police legitimacy. These results suggest that the widespread use of street stops undermined legitimacy. Lowered legitimacy had an influence on both law abidingness and the willingness to cooperate with legal authorities. The findings show that people were influenced by perceptions of police injustice/illegality.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Street stops among young urban men in New York City were associated with lower police legitimacy, but the effect was mediated by whether stops were perceived as procedurally fair and lawful rather than by stop frequency alone. Lower legitimacy, in turn, predicted more recent criminal activity and less willingness to cooperate with police and courts.

Key findings

  • Personal police contact was associated with significantly lower police legitimacy: 2.84 vs. 2.93 on a 1–4 scale, t(1,259) = 3.23, p < 0.001.
  • Stop frequency alone was not the main driver. In personal-experience models, police intrusiveness predicted lower legitimacy (b = −0.558, p = 0.015); in general neighborhood models, perceived number of stops (b = −0.057, p = 0.003) and intrusiveness (b = −0.157, p = 0.000) predicted lower legitimacy, with adjusted R² = 0.290 for general judgments vs. 0.149 for personal experience.
  • Procedural fairness during a salient stop strongly predicted legitimacy (b = 0.205, p = 0.000); once fairness and legality were included, exposure to stops was not significant. General judgments about police procedural justice also predicted legitimacy (b = 0.114, p = 0.001; model adjusted R² = 0.414).
  • Legitimacy predicted law-related behavior: recent criminal activity (b = −0.031, p = 0.041), cooperation with police (b = 0.576, p = 0.000), and willingness to serve on a jury (b = 0.478, p = 0.000). Among those low in legitimacy, 30% engaged in some criminal activity vs. 15% among those high in legitimacy.

Methods

  • Stratified random telephone sample of young men ages 18–26 in New York City, N = 1,261, drawn from 146 neighborhood clusters, with oversampling of high-stop neighborhoods and weighting to approximate the population.
  • Measures included legitimacy (trust/confidence, obligation to obey, normative alignment), recent criminal activity, cooperation with police and courts, personal stop experience, and generalized neighborhood police stop experience.
  • Analyses used OLS regressions with neighborhood fixed effects and clustered standard errors, race-specific models, Lowess smoothed graphs, and propensity scores to adjust for selection into stop experience.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the analysis was cross-sectional, all questions were answered at one point in time, and reports were retrospective, so causal effects cannot be identified; reverse causality is especially possible for recent criminal activity.
  • The paper notes the unique New York City stop-and-frisk context and the potentially truncated style of policing as limits on substantive conclusions about stop style.
  • Evident from the text: the sample is limited to young men ages 18–26 in New York City, criminal activity is self-reported, and the observational design relies on propensity-score adjustment rather than random assignment.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/jels.12055

Cites

108 of 108 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 31 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Judgments of justice and lawfulness shaped the estimated influence of judgments of the general character of police behavior in the community on general perceptions of police legitimacy.

    “Similarly, judgments of justice and lawfulness shaped the estimated influence of judgments of the general character of police behavior in the community on general perceptions of police legitimacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    People were influenced by perceptions of police injustice/illegality.

    “The findings show that people were influenced by perceptions of police injustice/illegality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    An examination of the influence of street stops on the legal socialization of young men showed an association between the number of police stops they see or experience and a diminished sense of police legitimacy.

    “An examination of the influence of street stops on the legal socialization of young men showed an association between the number of police stops they see or experience and a diminished sense of police legitimacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The association between number of police stops and diminished sense of police legitimacy was not primarily a consequence of the number of stops or of the degree of police intrusion during those stops.

    “This association was not primarily a consequence of the number of stops or of the degree of police intrusion during those stops.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The impact of involuntary contact with the police on police legitimacy was mediated by evaluations of the fairness of police actions and judgments about whether the police were acting lawfully.

    “Rather, the impact of involuntary contact with the police was mediated by evaluations of the fairness of police actions and judgments about whether the police were acting lawfully.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 22
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 5

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Lowered legitimacy had an influence on both law abidingness and the willingness to cooperate with legal authorities.

    “Lowered legitimacy had an influence on both law abidingness and the willingness to cooperate with legal authorities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Analyses of characteristics of landline and cell phone respondents and the extent of their interactions with police showed few differences in the method of recruitment.

    “Analyses of characteristics of landline and cell phone respondents and the extent of their interactions with police showed few differences in the method of recruitment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Perceived legitimacy increases with the quality of police treatment across the range of general and personal police treatment, even in a rough proactive policing regime.

    “Even in a rough regime of proactive policing, the dose response of legitimacy to fair treatment is evident.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Perceived police legitimacy significantly predicts recent criminal activity, cooperation with the police, and cooperation with the legal system (jury service).

    “Perceived police legitimacy significantly predicted each of the three behaviors, supporting the premise of the project.”
    • Also stated in: § General-fair · plain
      “Legitimacy of the police and frequency of stops, police intrusiveness in stops, police performance, and fear of crime were significant predictors of criminal behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Police legitimacy is higher among respondents who perceive that police used fair procedures to determine and implement policies, and legality of police actions and police performance also matter.

    “Police legitimacy was found to be significantly higher among respondents who felt that the police used fair procedures that gave neighborhood views a chance to be heard to determine their policies and if the police acted fairly when they implemented them.”
    • Also stated in: § 3. Police Practice and Police Legitimacy · plain
      “In addition to procedural justice, the legality of police actions and police performance mattered.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    More experiences with police lead respondents to view the police more negatively, evaluating later contacts as less fair and lawful.

    “Put another way, the findings indicate that the more experiences respondents had with the police, the less likely they were to indicate that the police treated them fairly and that police actions were lawful.”
    • Also stated in: § Street Stops and Police Legitimacy · boosted
      “As is clear from the figures, more experiences lead respondents to view the police more negatively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Whites react to procedural justice in forming and implementing policies, but not to police performance.

    “Whites reacted to procedural justice in forming and implementing policies, but not to police performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Perceived procedural unfairness, illegality, and unfair outcomes of stops are associated with lower police legitimacy; perceived fair and lawful police actions are associated with higher legitimacy.

    “Respondents reported lower police legitimacy when stops were assessed as being procedurally unfair, illegal, and leading to unfair outcomes.”
    • Also stated in: § 2. Neighborhood Police Behavior and Legitimacy · plain
      “Respondents saw the police as more legitimate when the police were viewed as having acted fairly and lawfully.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Legitimacy promotes cooperation with police, while perceived intrusiveness of police conduct undermines it; police effectiveness also predicts cooperation with police.

    “Legitimacy promotes cooperation, while the view that the police conduct was intrusive undermines it.”
    • Also stated in: § General-fair · hedged
      “In addition to legitimacy, police effectiveness was also a significant predictor of cooperation with the police, suggesting that respondents' behaviors were shaped by their perceptions of both legitimacy and effectiveness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Perceptions of general police competence in fighting crime and judgments of the appropriateness of police conduct shape perceived legitimacy.

    “For example, perceptions of general police competence in fighting crime shaped perceived legitimacy, as did judgments of the appropriateness of police conduct.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    General neighborhood judgments about police stops (frequency and intrusiveness) are negatively associated with police legitimacy, and general-level judgments explain more variance than personal experiences (adjusted R2 0.290 vs. 0.149).

    “The amount of explained variance (adjusted R 2 ) for this general level model is 0.290, suggesting that general-level judgments mattered more than personal experiences, for which the adjusted R 2 was 0.149.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    More intrusive police contact in personal experience is associated with more negative evaluations of police legitimacy, while the number of stops is not the key predictor.

    “For personal experiences, more intrusive police contact was associated with more negative evaluations in terms of legitimacy, suggesting that people reacted to the intrusiveness of their prior experience, not the number of stops.”
    • Also stated in: § 1. General and Personal Experiences with Police · boosted
      “In other words, whether the police threatened or used force or were humiliating or disrespectful were the strongest predictors of respondents' assessments of police legitimacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The sample included 1,261 respondents.

    “Table 1 : Sample Characteristics (N = 1,261) a”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    73.2% of the sample had ever been stopped on the street only.

    “| % stopped (ever, street only, N = 1,234) | 73.2 | 71.2 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Almost none of these contacts turn up guns (0.11 percent of all stops) or other contraband (1.5 percent).

    “Almost none turn up guns (0.11 percent of all stops) or other contraband (1.5 percent).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Within each neighborhood, phone numbers were randomly selected from three sampling frames: landline random digit dial (RDD), cell phone RDD, and a listed sample obtained from a market research agency.

    “Within each neighborhood, phone numbers were randomly selected from three sampling frames: landline random digit dial (RDD), cell phone RDD, and a listed sample obtained from a market research agency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Of these contacts, about one in nine resulted in an arrest or a citation, and about one in five appear to fall short of constitutional grounds of legal sufficiency.

    “Of these contacts, about one in nine resulted in an arrest or a citation, and about one in five appear to fall short of constitutional grounds of legal sufficiency”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fagan 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Recent research on the police suggests an additional criterion for evaluating police policies and practices: how the activities of the police shape public views about police legitimacy.

    “Recent research on the police suggests an additional criterion that might be applied to the evaluation of police policies and practices: how the activities of the police shape public views about police legitimacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Carr et al. 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sunshine & Tyler 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tyler 2006b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Perceived procedural justice varied widely across respondents and was a stronger determinant of perceived police legitimacy than whether the respondent received a favorable outcome.

    “Perceived procedural justice varied widely across respondents, and was found to be a stronger determinant of perceived police legitimacy than whether the respondent received a favorable outcome.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Being questioned by the police is a common occurrence in New York City for hundreds of thousands of residents and visitors, particularly for young men of color.

    “Being questioned by the police is a common occurrence in New York City for hundreds of thousands of residents and visitors, but particularly for young men of color”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Fagan 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Fagan 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Fagan et al. 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Neighborhoods were stratified by their per-capita rates of police stops in the past 24 months and sorted into deciles.

    “Neighborhoods were then stratified by their per-capita rates of police stops in the past 24 months and sorted into deciles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Legal socialization is shaped not only by whether respondents had been stopped by the police, but also by their perceptions of procedural justice during the stop.

    “Research with community samples of New York City residents (Tyler & Fagan 2008) and young people in London (Bradford 2014) finds that legal socialization is shaped not only by whether respondents had been stopped by the police, but also by their perceptions of procedural justice during the stop”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Tyler & Fagan 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bradford 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    A stratified random sample of young men ages 18-26 in New York City was interviewed by telephone about their history of contact with the NYPD both in their lifetime and in the past year.

    “A stratified random sample of young men ages 18-26 in New York City was interviewed by telephone about their history of contact with the NYPD both in their lifetime and in the past year.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Subjects were randomly sampled from 146 neighborhood clusters.

    “Subjects were randomly sampled from 146”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Fagan and Piquero found much the same with a sample of active offenders ages 16-21 from two large cities.

    “Fagan and Piquero (2007) found much the same with a sample of active offenders ages 16-21 from two large cities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fagan & Piquero 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Police activities create general and salient impressions about how the police exercise their authority and, in turn, about police legitimacy, even among those not stopped.

    “These activities create general and salient impressions about how the police exercise their authority and, in turn, about police legitimacy, even among those not stopped”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Carr et al. 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sunshine & Tyler 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tyler 2006b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sample weights were adjusted for within-household selection, for the rare cases that households contained multiple members in our population of interest (i.e., 18-26 year old males), and differential nonresponse by race/ethnicity, borough, and telephone service.

    “The sample weights were also adjusted for within-household selection, for the rare cases that households contained multiple members in our population of interest (i.e., 18-26 year old males), and differential nonresponse by race/ethnicity, borough, and telephone service.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Legitimacy matters and legitimacy deficits have real consequences for public safety.

    “The results of this study suggest that legitimacy matters, and that legitimacy deficits are real in their consequences for public safety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    People who have more contact with police evaluate later contacts as less fair and lawful, leading to a corrosive influence on the psychological judgments underlying legitimacy.

    “Hence, these findings suggest that people who have more contact with the police evaluate their later contacts as less fair and lawful, in turn leading to a corrosive influence of contact on the psychological judgments underlying legitimacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study's strengths include its focus on neighborhoods and persons most likely to experience involuntary police contact in a proactive policing regime.

    “The study's strengths are important to note as well: its focus on the neighborhoods and persons most likely to experience involuntary police contact in a proactive policing regime.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The models included fixed effects for neighborhood and standard errors clustered by neighborhood.

    “The models included fixed effects for neighborhood and standard errors were clustered by neighborhood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Public housing was important because it has been the locus of intensive police enforcement and patrol tactics there differ from other areas.

    “Public housing was singularly important because it has been the locus of intensive police enforcement, and because the patrol tactics in those high-rise buildings have been conducted in a manner different from patrols in other areas (Fagan et al. 2012;Carlis 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Fagan et al. 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Carlis 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The cooperation and legal system scales had acceptable reliability (Alpha = 0.78 and 0.79).

    “These three items were combined into a single scale using the mean scale scores (Alpha = 0.78).”
    • Also stated in: § Help the Legal System · plain
      “These three items also were combined into a single scale using the mean scale scores (Alpha = 0.79).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    A factor analysis indicated that the judgments about police intrusiveness all loaded into a single factor, so they were averaged into a single score.

    “A factor analysis indicated that these judgments all loaded into a single factor so they were averaged into a single score.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
34 of 34

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The sample reflects a diverse group of young New Yorkers, and the weighted sample reflects a random selection of the 18-26 male age group.

    “Note: The sample reflects a diverse group of young New Yorkers, and the weighted sample reflects a random selection of the 18-26 male age group.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The legitimacy scale's three aspects (trust and confidence, obligation to obey, shared normative values) adequately capture the concept of legitimacy.

    “The legitimacy scale reflected three aspects of the concept of legitimacy: trust and confidence; obligation to obey; and shared normative values.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The most salient stop (the one that 'stood out' and was remembered most clearly) is the critical experience for shaping legitimacy.

    “It is that critical experience that is central to this analysis.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Claimed effects of stop legality and outcome fairness are not significant

    Major

    The results text attributes lower legitimacy to illegal stops and unfair outcomes, but Table 3 marks both legal stop reason and fair outcome as nonsignificant. Only procedural fairness is significant among those three measures.

  • Criminal-behavior predictors described as significant are nonsignificant

    Major

    The text calls frequency of stops, police performance, and fear of crime significant predictors of criminal behavior. Table 6 marks all three as nonsignificant in the criminal-activity column.

  • Legitimacy scale item count does not add up

    Minor

    The stated 13 positive and 12 negative items total 25, not 35.

    Reported 35 · recomputed 25

  • No-contact percentage uses the contact count

    Minor

    The 712 respondents with no past-year contact are 56.5% of the 1,261-person sample, not 44%. The 44% figure approximately describes the 549 respondents with contact.

    Reported 44 · recomputed 56.463125

  • Stop-frequency interaction described as influential despite nonsignificant result

    Minor

    The text says the number of harsh stops-the interaction-influenced legitimacy, whereas Table 2 marks the general-neighborhood interaction as nonsignificant.

  • Jury-service scale is said to combine three items after listing one

    Minor

    The Help the Legal System section gives one jury-service question, then says three items were combined into a scale.

6 of 6

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 11

  1. Carlis A., 2009, The Illegality of Vertical Patrols, Columbia Law Rev., 109, 2002
  2. Collins R., 2007, Strolling While Poor: How Broken‐Windows Policing Created a New Crime in Baltimore, Georgetown J. of Poverty Law & Policy, 14, 419
  3. Fratello J., 2013, Coming of Age with Stop and Frisk: Experiences, Self‐Perceptions, and Public Safety Implications
  4. Friedman L., 1975, The Legal System: A Social Science Perspective
  5. Gau J. M., 2009, Procedural Justice and Order Maintenance Policing: A Study of Inner‐City Young Men's Perceptions of Police Legitimacy, Justice Q., 1, 1
  6. Langton L., 2013, Police Behavior During Traffic and Street Stops, 2011 (NCJ 242937)
  7. Maple Jack, 2000, The Crime Fighter: How You Can Put the Bad Guys Out of Business and Make Your Community Safe
  8. Meares T. L., The Two Different Worlds We Live In: Lawfulness and Perceived Police Misconduct, J. of Criminal Law & Criminology
  9. Spitzer Eliot, 1999, The New York City Police Department's Stop & Frisk Practices: A Report to the People of the State of New York from the Office of the Attorney General
  10. Tyler T. R., 2008, Why Do People Cooperate with the Police?, Ohio State J. of Criminal Law, 6, 231
  11. Weber M., 1968, Economy and Society

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Tyler, T. R., Fagan, J., & Geller, A.
Affiliations
University of Connecticut (US)
Corresponding author
Tyler, Tom R.
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Empirical Legal Studies
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2014-10-28
Volume
11
Issue
4
Pages
751-785
ISSN
  • 1740-1453 (ISSN-L)
  • 1740-1461
DOI
10.1111/jels.12055
OpenAlex
W3125422613
Semantic Scholar
cb04b7e5078a96d249ec381765cd78ce75263327
Cited by
457
References
108
Citations by year
2026: 14 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 1
FWCI
158.46
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • Journal of Empirical Legal Studies (publishedVersion)
  • SSRN Electronic Journal (acceptedVersion)
  • bepress Legal Repository (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institute of Justice (2010-IJ-CX-0025)
  • Public Health Law Research Program of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (69669)
  • National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (R24HD058486)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
  • Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
Keywords
police stops, police legitimacy, legal socialization, law-abidingness, cooperation with law enforcement, teachable moments, community perceptions of police

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