Photodegradation of Eumelanin and Pheomelanin and Its Pathophysiological Implications
Open accessAbstract
Eumelanin is photoprotective for pigmented tissues while pheomelanin is phototoxic. In this review, we summarize current understanding of how eumelanin and pheomelanin structures are modified by ultraviolet A (UVA) and also by visible light and how reactive oxygen species participate in those processes. Alkaline hydrogen peroxide oxidation was employed to characterize eumelanin and benzothiazole‐type pheomelanin, giving pyrrole‐2,3,5‐tricarboxylic acid (PTCA) and thiazole‐2,4,5‐tricarboxylic acid (TTCA), respectively. Reductive hydrolysis with hydroiodic acid gives 4‐amino‐3‐hydroxyphenylalanine (4‐AHP) from the benzothiazine moiety of pheomelanin. The results show that the photoaging of eumelanin gives rise to free PTCA (produced by peroxidation in situ) and pyrrole‐2,3,4,5‐tetracarboxylic acid (PT e CA, produced by cross‐linking). The TTCA/4‐AHP ratio increases with photoaging, indicating the conversion of benzothiazine to the benzothiazole moiety. Analysis of those markers and their ratios show that both eumelanin and pheomelanin in human retinal pigment epithelium melanosomes undergo extensive structural modifications due to their lifelong exposure to blue light. Using synthetic melanins, we also found that singlet oxygen, in addition to superoxide anions, is photogenerated and quenched upon UVA irradiation. The (patho)physiological significance of those findings is discussed in relation to the tanning process, to melanomagenesis in the skin and to age‐related macular degeneration in the eyes.
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BT-pheomelanin is produced primarily by the oxidation of 5-S-cysteinyl dopa and converted to BZ-pheomelanin during photolysis or upon exposure to UVA or heat.
“It is established that BT-pheomelanin is produced primarily by the oxidation of 5- S -cysteinyl dopa and converted to BZ-pheomelanin during photolysis or upon exposure to UVA or heat [ 28 , 29 , 49 , 50 ].”
From Differential Induction of Reactive Oxygen Species and Expression of Antioxidant Enzymes in Human Melanocytes Correlate with Melanin Content: Implications on the Response to Solar UV and Melanoma Susceptibility (2022) · cites this paper as [50]
The Introduction describes pheomelanin as arising from oxidative polymerization of both 5-S- and 2-S-cysteinyldopa; it does not establish that 5-S-cysteinyldopa is the primary precursor. The Photodegradation section (p. 411) supports conversion of benzothiazine (BT) to benzothiazole (BZ) under UVA irradiation, but the passages found do not establish heat as another cause of that conversion. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSome of these compounds are present in human plasma at 0.1-300 μM.
“Some of these compounds are present in human plasma at 0.1-300 μM (130).”
From Chemiexcitation: Mammalian Photochemistry in the Dark<sup>†</sup> (2023) · cites this paper as [130]
The Introduction discusses melanin composition in human epidermis, and the Conclusions describe melanin measurements in hair and retinal pigment epithelium; neither gives concentrations in human plasma. Searches for “human plasma 0.1-300 μM,” “plasma,” and “300 μM” found no passage addressing the claimed range. (LLM, conf=0.75)
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Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
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Lawrence, K. P., Douki, T., Sarkany, R. P. E., Acker, S., Herzog, B., & Young, A. R. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-30738-6 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Melanin Transfer and Fate within Keratinocytes in Human Skin Pigmentation
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Upadhyay, P. R., Starner, R. J., Swope, V. B., Wakamatsu, K., Ito, S., & Abdel-Malek, Z. A. (2022) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox11061204 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
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Brash, D. E., & Goncalves, L. C. P. (2023) · Photochemistry and Photobiology · doi:10.1111/php.13781 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The Impact of Sunlight on Skin Aging
Kaddurah, H., Braunberger, T. L., Vellaichamy, G., Nahhas, A. F., Lim, H. W., & Hamzavi, I. H. (2018) · Current Geriatrics Reports · doi:10.1007/s13670-018-0262-0 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Ito, S., Wakamatsu, K., & Sarna, T.
- Affiliations
- Fujita Health University (JP)
- Jagiellonian University (PL)
- Corresponding author
- Ito, Shosuke
- Venue
- Photochemistry and Photobiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2017-10-26
- Volume
- 94
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 409-420
- ISSN
- 0031-8655 (ISSN-L)
- 1751-1097
- OpenAlex
- W2753682339
- Cited by
- 136
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 5
- FWCI
- 0.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Photochemistry and Photobiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Jagiellonian University Repository (Jagiellonian University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (23591659 and 26461705)
- Narodowe Centrum Nauki (2013/08/A/NZ1/00194)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › melanin and skin pigmentation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Skin Protection and Aging
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Keywords
- eumelanin, pheomelanin, photodegradation, UVA, visible light, reactive oxygen species, benzothiazine, melanosomes, retinal pigment epithelium, blue light, singlet oxygen, superoxide, tanning, melanomagenesis, age-related macular degeneration, photoaging
- MeSH terms
- Carboxylic Acids, Eye, Humans, Hydrogen Peroxide, Light, Melanins, Pyrroles, Skin, Thiazoles, Tyrosine, Ultraviolet Rays, Skin Aging, Reactive Oxygen Species, Melanosomes, Retinal Pigment Epithelium
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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