Production and perception of a novel, second-language phonetic contrast

“For example, although grouped data in the experiments of Flege (1993) were in accordance with the hypothesis that proper perception precedes proper production in second language learners, the data for individual participants did not support this hypothesis: As many participants showed large production effects of the s…”

“The most recent data are consistent with the hypothesis that non-natives resemble native speakers more closely in perceiving than in producing some sounds (Flege, 1993).”

“…problem of explaining how ‘the same units’ are detected and identified from stimuli which are in fact not physically equivalent, and is inconsistent with more recent research showing that acoustic similarity can impede the detection and encoding of novel categories (Flege, 1987; 1991; 1993).”

“…USA E-mail: guion@uoregon.edu While many studies have been conducted comparing the acquisition of segmental production by early and late learners (Flege, 1991, 1993; Flege, Munro and MacKay, 1995b; Munro, Flege and MacKay, 1996; Flege, MacKay and Meador, 1999; Guion, 2003, among others),…”

“In learning novel speech sounds, perception frequently improves without production learning, and vice versa (Bradlow et al., 1997; de Jong, Hao, & Park, 2009; Flege, 1993; Sheldon & Strange, 1982).”

“Unfortunately, only few studies have compared L2 perception and production performance directly, with even fewer having used the two former approaches (e.g., Flege, 1993; Flege et al., 1999; Peperkamp and Bouchon, 2011) and none having used all three.”

“…the sentence in (2) to mean (1), native English listeners must quickly adjust to gross categorical mismatches (e.g., unaspirated voiceless stops fall into the English voiced category rather than the intended voiceless one (Flege, 1984, 1993; 0010-0277/$ -see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier B.V.”

“…contributing factors, including age of the learner and amount of second language input, are addressed in this literature on second language speech perception (e.g. Pisoni et al., 1982; Werker and Tees, 1984; Werker and Logan, 1985; Polka, 1992; Best et al., 2001; Flege, 1993; Flege et al., 1995).”

“Conversely, however, there is also much evidence that learning an L2 may change the way the listener perceives the L1 (Flege, 1993; Flege, Schirru, & MacKay, 2003; Flege, Yeni-Komshian, & Liu, 1999).”

“…been segmental production+ There have been many studies investigating the production of L2 consonants and vowels by early and late L2 learners ~e+g+, Flege, 1991, 1993; Flege,MacKay, & Meador, 1999; Flege,Munro, & MacKay, 1995a; Guion, 2003; Munro, Flege, & MacKay, 1996!+ However, there have…”

“This cross-linguistic influence plays an important role in provoking the percept of a discernable ‘foreign accent’ (Broselow, 1987; Cebrián, 2000; Cutler, 2002; Flege, 1987, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1997a, b; Flege et al., 1999a; Zampini, 1994).”

“Research involving other languages has indeed shown that sensitivity to temporal structure carries over from one’s L1 to one’s L2 in both production and perception (Bent et al., 2008; Engstrand and Krull, 1994; Flege, 1993; Strange et al., 1998).”

“Our main result on the relationship between perception and production is in agreement with a number of previous studies (Bettoni-Techio et al., 2007; Flege, 1993; Flege et al., 1997, 1999; Flege and Schmidt, 1995; Hattori and Iverson, 2009, 2010; Jia et al., 2006; Kluge et al., 2007; Schmidt and Flege, 1995; Zhang and…”

“These results support previous findings suggesting that native-like production is limited by how accurately the sounds are perceived (Flege, 1993; Flege, Bohn, & Jang, 1997; Flege, MacKay, & Meador, 1999).”

“There is evidence to suggest that L2 learners tend to have better ability in perception than production (Baker & Trofimovich, 2006; Flege, 1993; Flege, Bohn, & Jang, 1997).”

“A model that does have a strong empirical foundation is Flege’s Speech Learning Model ( Flege, 1993 ).”

“Indeed, many crosslinguistic studies confirm that durational patterns in L2 differ from native norms (e.g. Adams, 1979; Flege, 1993; White and Mattys, 2007a; Bent, Bradlow, and Smith, 2008).”

“However, in some studies, high similarity between the L1 and Ln has been found to increase the probability of negative transfer (Best, 1995; Flege, 1993, 2003; Flege, MacKay, & Meador, 1999; Kuhl, 1991; Piske, Flege, MacKay, & Meador, 2002).”

“…often been found to diverge from each other (e.g. Baker & Trofimovich, 2006; Bohn & Flege, 1997; Bradlow, Pisoni, Akahane-Yamada, & Tohkura, 1997; Flege, 1993; Flege, Bohn, & Jang, 1997; Ingram & Park, 1997; Sheldon & Strange, 1982), a comparison of second language learners' imitation with their…”

“82 Phonetica 2004;61:67–83 Tsukada/Birdsong/Mack/Sung/Bialystok/Flege Kim, H.; Jongman, A.: Acoustic and perceptual evidence for complete neutralization of manner of articulation in Korean.”

“It is fairly reasonable to hypothesise that the production would not change signi fi cantly during this training time since perception learning usually precedes production learning (see e.g., Flege, 1993).”

“…new L2 sounds on the perception level is relatively automatic, and that perception test scores are thought to mirror their mental representations (see Flege, 1993, p. 1605), the current study is a first attempt to illustrate how FFI and CF can facilitate, in particular, L2 perception development.”

“These results corroborate the vast literature discussing differential difficulty in cross-language speech perception (e.g., Best et al., 1988, 2001; Best, Faber, & Levitt, 1996; Flege, 1993, 1995; Flege & Hillenbrand, 1986; Flege, Munro, & Fox, 1994; Guion et al., 2000; Levy, 2009b).”

“For example, Flege (1993, 1995) claims that L2 production accuracy is necessarily limited by perceptual accuracy and that, especially in early stages of L2 acquisition, L2 production might be less native-like than perception.”

“This finding is in line with many studies suggesting that perception drives production in L1 and L2 acquisition (Barry, 1989; Borden et al., 1983; Flege, 1993; Flege et al., 1997; Grasseger, 1991; Leather, 1999; Llisterri, 1995; Neufeld, 1988; Rochet, 1995; Williams, 1979).”

“…speech sounds are more difficult than others to perceive accurately, primarily due to differences in the mapping between native and non-native phonological categories (e.g., Best, Hallé, Bohn, & Faber, 2003; Best, McRoberts, & Goodell, 2001; Flege, 1993, 1995; Flege, Schirru, & MacKay, 2003).”

“…in section 3, with some proposed generalizations based on models of cross-language speech perception in adults (Best, McRoberts, & Sithole, 1988; Flege, 1993; Kuhl, 1991; Major, 2001), theories of L1 perceptual development (Repp, 1981; Stager & Werker, 1997; Werker, 1994; Werker & Tees, 1984b,…”

“Such substitution patterns have been investigated extensively in the linguistic community, for example see [4].”

“1987 ; Hiramatsu 1990 ; Crowther & Mann 1992 ; Flege 1993 ; Munro 1993 ; Ichizaki 1997 ; Tsukada 1999 ).”

“Although speech perception generally entails highly automatic processing, production can occur with varying levels of attention to meaning and form (see Flege, 1993, p. 1605).”

“For example, while speakers of English rely on duration of a preceding vowel in the production and perception of voicing in intervocalic or final stops (Lisker, 1986), speakers of other languages are less sensitive to this acoustic parameter (Flege, 1993).”

“…by a vast literature reporting careful studies that document L2 phonetic development, status and implementation, both in the areas of perception and production, of the sound inventories of numerous TLs (Bohn & Flege, 1992; Flege, 1987, 1990, 1993, 1995; Leather & James 1991; Munro & Derwing, 1997).”

“One source of difficulty involves routine encounters with ambiguous speech input due to L2 listeners’ less accurate perception of certain nonnative phonological contrasts, especially those that are not represented in the native (L1) phonology (Best & Tyler, 2007; Flege, 1993; Kuhl, 1991).”

“Flege (1993) explains that when there are sounds that do not exist in one’s L1, it is replaced with similar sounds that do exist in one’s L1 when using the L2. There are several theories that explain the influence of L1 on the learners of L2. A few of these theories are mentioned by Fu (2010): the Critical Period Hypo…”

“The first factor, experience, may provide L2 learners with more accurate discrimination and production abilities (Best & Strange, 1992; Flege, 1993; Flege, Bohn, & Jang, 1997; Flege & Liu, 2001; Kuhl & Iverson, 1995).”

“modalities during learning and training (Bent, 2005; de Jong et al., 2009; DeKeyser & Sokalski, 1996; Flege, 1993).”

“On coda position, they maintain a contrast between these two types of plosives by vowel lengthening before voiced stops (Flege, 1993).”

“Over this same period of time, much research on the L2 phonological acquisition has focused on the implementations of target-language contrasts by L2 learners compared with native speakers of the target language (Bohn & Flege 1992; Flege 1987, 1993; Leather & James 1991; Derwing & Munro 1997).”

“Optimal L2 perception is often considered a prerequisite for monolingual-like category realization (cf. Flege, 1993; Leather, 1999; Llisterri, 1995; Rochet, 1995).”

“Flege (1993) explains that when there are sounds that do not exist in one’s L1, it is replaced with similar sounds that do exist in one’s L1 when using the L2.”

“Accurate perceptual categorization of minimal pair distinctions is assumed to be a necessary condition to the encoding of phonological dimensions within lexical representations (Flege, 1993).”

“When people learn a second (L2) or a foreign language after puberty, they usually present some foreign accent (Flege, 1993; Major, 2001; Munro, Derwing, & Morton, 2006).”

“…studies have showed that the degree to which second-language production can approximate native speech is limited by learners’ perceptual abilities (Flege, 1993; Flege et al., 1999), and that perceptual training can produce corresponding improvements in production (Bradlow, Pisoni,…”

“…careful studies documenting L2 phonetic development, both in the areas of perception and production, as well as detailing the status and implementation of the sound systems of numerous interlanguage systems (Bohn & Flege 1990; Flege 1987, 1990, 1993; Leather & James 1991; Derwing & Munro 1997).”

“The previous studies on the articulatory deviance of the foreign accented speech have primarily focused on segmental features (Brennan et al. 1975; Flege & Hillenbrand, 1984; Flege, 1987; Mack, 1989; Flege, 1993; Mildner & Horga, 1999; Riney, Takada and Ota, 2000; Levi et al., 2007).”

“Referring to the finding on different pitch usage of English on people who are using different first language [18], [19], or different genders [20], it is also possible that some people may find such pitch variation or the variation set in our study is strange and prefer a fixed pitch or other variations from person t…”

“Transfer between perception and production ability has been found in a number of L2 learning studies, such that perceptual success predicts production ability (Flege, 1993, 1999; Flege et al., 1997; Wang et al., 2003).”

“…(L2) is explained by the fact that the phonemes which are different will sooner be acquired than similar ones which exist in both languages (Flege 1993, 1995), i.e. two sounds which exist in a foreign language will merge into one which exists in the mother tongue and adapt to the vowel…”

“…connection in this area (Bohn and Flege, 1997; Hattori and Iverson, 2010; Strange, 1995), others have claimed that there is a correlation between L2 learners’ production and perception of target-language contrasts (Bradlow et al., 1999; Flege, 1993; Flege et al., 1997, 1999a; Yamada et al., 1994).”

“기존의 연구에서는 발화와 청취는 서로 크게 연관성이 없 다는 것을 많이 밝혔다 (e.g., Goto, 1971; Shelton & Johnson, 1977; Sheldon & Strange, 1982; Borden et al., 1983; Flege & Eefting, 1987; Flege, 1993; Nasir & Ostry, 2009).”