Tutorial on sound propagation outdoors
Abstract
Concerns about noise in the community date back to the dawn of recorded history. Then, after centuries of relatively little activity, scientific interest grew during the 17th century and social concerns were again voiced during the 19th century. Many of the wave-propagation mechanisms relevant outdoors were understood at least qualitatively by the late 1800s. Today, knowledge of sound propagation phenomena is of great economic and social importance because of environmental and other concerns. Reality is more complicated than geometrical spreading above flat ground. Some grounds are acoustically hard like concrete, and others soft as snow. Corresponding reflection coefficients are complex and vary with angle. Grounds may not be flat, leading to shadow zones or alternatively multiple reflections at the ground. Gradients of wind or temperature refract waves either upwards (upwind or in a temperature lapse) or downwards (downwind or in a temperature inversion). Atmospheric turbulence causes fluctuations in the acoustical effects. Many of these features mutually interact. Measured sound pressure levels owe as much to near-surface weather and to ground shape and impedance as to acoustical factors such as source and receiver heights and their separation. This tutorial paper emphasizes field measurements and simple physical interpretations.
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The major features of the paper's transmission loss curves are consistent with measured curves and models from previous acoustic studies of sound propagation close to the ground.
“The major features of our transmission loss curves (Figs 4, 5) are consistent with the measured curves and models of previous acoustic studies of sound propagation close to the ground (Embleton, 1996; Embleton et al., 1976, 1983).”
From Directional acoustic radiation in the strut display of male sage grouse <i>Centrocercus urophasianus</i> (1999) · cites this paper as Embleton, 1996
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Li, K. M., Law, M. K., & Kwok, M. P. (2008) · Journal of Sound and Vibration · doi:10.1016/j.jsv.2008.02.023 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Mapping and assessing natural soundscape quality: An indicator-based model for landscape planning
Chen, Z., Hermes, J., & von Haaren, C. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120422 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Sound propagation and speech transmission in a branching underground tunnel
Imaizumi, H., Kunimatsu, S., & Isei, T. (2000) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.429595 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
A model of interrupted road traffic noise
Makarewicz, R., Fujimoto, M., & Kokowski, P. (1999) · Applied Acoustics · doi:10.1016/s0003-682x(98)00029-2 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Urban Air Mobility Noise: Further Considerations on Indoor Space
Kim, J.-H. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191811298 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“The n ise of a car spreads from lower to upper heights [27] and directly affects urban residents [28].”
BackgroundEvaluating the applicability of a screen diffraction approximation to local volcano infrasound
Maher, S. P., Matoza, R. S., de Groot–Hedlin, C., et al. (2021) · Volcanica · doi:10.30909/vol.04.01.6785 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“The chart is nonetheless reproduced in Figure 3 of Maekawa [1968] and was commonly cited before Maekawa’s empirical relation became popular [e.g. Ettouney and Fricke 1973; Jonasson 1972; Purcell 1957; Scholes et al. 1971].”
BackgroundMethodLandscaping for road traffic noise abatement: Model validation
Renterghem, T. V., & Botteldooren, D. B. (2018) · Environmental Modelling & Software · doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2018.08.012 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
- Authors
- Embleton, T. F. W.
- Affiliations
- 80 Sheardown Drive, Box 786, Nobleton, Ontario L0G 1N0, Canada
- Corresponding author
- Embleton, Tony F. W.
- Venue
- The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
- Publisher
- Acoustical Society of America (ASA)
- Published
- 1996-07-01
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 31-48
- ISSN
- 0001-4966 (ISSN-L)
- 1520-8524
- OpenAlex
- W2057468008
- Cited by
- 310
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 30.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › Noise Effects and Management
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Acoustic Wave Phenomena Research
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Aerodynamics and Acoustics in Jet Flows
- Keywords
- outdoor sound propagation, ground effect, ground impedance, shadow zone, atmospheric refraction, wind gradients, temperature inversion, atmospheric turbulence, sound pressure level, field measurements, community noise
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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