Cited by 2,113Primate Behavior and EcologyStress Responses and CortisolEvolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 50 of the 50 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The Influence of Social Hierarchy on Primate Health

Sapolsky, Robert M.·2005·Science

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Dominance hierarchies occur in numerous social species, and rank within them can greatly influence the quality of life of an animal. In this review, I consider how rank can also influence physiology and health. I first consider whether it is high- or low-ranking animals that are most stressed in a dominance hierarchy; this turns out to vary as a function of the social organization in different species and populations. I then review how the stressful characteristics of social rank have adverse adrenocortical, cardiovascular, reproductive, immunological, and neurobiological consequences. Finally, I consider how these findings apply to the human realm of health, disease, and socioeconomic status.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1126/science.1106477

Cites

50 of 50 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions
Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. U. (2000) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/edrv.21.1.0389 · Cited by 7,541
Self-citation
Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy, White women.
Adler, N. E., Epel, E. S., Castellazzo, G., & Ickovics, J. R. (2000) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.586 · Cited by 5,080
Untitled work
(1982) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,329
Reproduction and Resistance to Stress: When and How
Wingfield, J. C., & Sapolsky, R. (2003) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2826.2003.01033.x · Cited by 1,160
Self-citation
Is Income Inequality a Determinant of Population Health? Part 1. A Systematic Review
Lynch, J. W., Smith, G. D., Harper, S. B., Hillemeier, M. M., Ross, N. A., Kaplan, G. A., & Wolfson, M. C. (2004) · Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.0887-378x.2004.00302.x · Cited by 949
Monkeys reject unequal pay
Brosnan, S. F., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2003) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature01963 · Cited by 912
Chronic Psychosocial Stress Causes Apical Dendritic Atrophy of Hippocampal CA3 Pyramidal Neurons in Subordinate Tree Shrews
Magariños, A. M., McEwen, B. S., Flügge, G., & Fuchs, E. (1996) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.16-10-03534.1996 · Cited by 864
Social dominance and stress hormones
Creel, S. (2001) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02227-3 · Cited by 816
Sex and Friendship in Baboons
Smuts, B. B. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315129204 · Cited by 756
Are subordinates always stressed? a comparative analysis of rank differences in cortisol levels among primates
Abbott, D. H., Keverne, E. B., Bercovitch, F. B., Shively, C. A., Mendoza, S. P., Wendy Saltzman, A., Snowdon, C. T., Ziegler, T. E., Banjevic, M., Garland, T., et al. (2003) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0018-506x(02)00037-5 · Cited by 748
Self-citation

Flagged first, then by citations

Show all 50 references

Research works printed but not linked: 7

R. Sapolsky et al., Endocr. Rev.21, 55 (2000).
D. Abbott et al., Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C119, 261 (1998).
D. Abbott et al., Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C119, 261 (1998).
B. Wallner, in The Integrative Neurobiology of Affiliation, C. Carter, B. Kirkpatrick, I. Lederhendler, Eds. (New York Academy of Science, New York, 1996), pp. 45–51.
10.1002/(SICI)1098-2345(1997)42:1<25::AID-AJP2>3.0.CO;2-0 · DOI
S. Barnett, Nature175, 126 (1955).
R. Ader et al. Psychoneuroimmunology (Academic Press San Diego CA 2001) ed. 3.

Sorted by citations

Items 401–500 of 998

A dual‐axis approach to understanding neuroendocrine development
Shirtcliff, E. A., Dismukes, A. R., Marceau, K., Ruttle, P. L., Simmons, J. G., & Han, G. (2015) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21337 · Cited by 64
“This lack of mutual inhibition across HPA and HPG axes has been described before in this context in animal research (Wingfield & Sapolsky, 2003) in order to avoid a “ironic possibility” of stress-suppressed gonadal functioning in dominant animals during the breeding season (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Background
Kinship Shapes Affiliative Social Networks but Not Aggression in Ring-Tailed Coatis
Hirsch, B. T., Stanton, M. A., & Maldonado, J. E. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0037301 · Cited by 61
“dominance status of close kin [2–5], and dominance status can greatly influence stress hormone levels, food intake rates, longevity, and reproductive success [6–9].”
Background
The sedentary (r)evolution: Have we lost our metabolic flexibility?
Freese, J., Klement, R. J., Ruiz-Núñez, B., Schwarz, S., & Lötzerich, H. (2017) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.12724.2 · Cited by 76
“Sapolsky 190,191 found that in baboons social subordinance and social isolation is associated with manifestations of hypercortisolism.”
Dominance among female white-faced capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus): hierarchical linearity, nepotism, strength and stability
Fedigan, L. M., & Bergstrom, M. L. (2010) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/000579510x497283 · Cited by 60
“…& Alberts, 2003) is consistent throughout an individual’s lifetime and high rank has been correlated with increased fitness (including increased infant survival, shorter inter-birth intervals and lower age of sexual maturity for offspring, Pusey et al., 1997) and reduced stress (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Background
Estradiol effects on behavior and serum oxytocin are modified by social status and polymorphisms in the serotonin transporter gene in female rhesus monkeys
Michopoulos, V., Checchi, M., Sharpe, D. I., & Wilson, M. E. (2011) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.02.002 · Cited by 62
“…of subordination accomplished through harassment and noncontact aggression in macaque species is considered a potent psychosocial stressor (Sapolsky, 2005), as subordinate animals are hypercortisolemic due to diminished glucocorticoid negative feedback (Kaplan et al., 1984a; Shively,…”
Background
Intelligence in youth and mental health at age 50
Wraw, C., Deary, I. J., Der, G., & Galé, C. R. (2016) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2016.06.005 · Cited by 60
Individual history of winning and hierarchy landscape influence stress susceptibility in mice
LeClair, K. B., Chan, K. L., Kaster, M. P., Parise, L. F., Burnett, C. J., & Russo, S. J. (2021) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.71401 · Cited by 59
Cortical astrocytes modulate dominance behavior in male mice by regulating synaptic excitatory and inhibitory balance
Noh, K., Cho, W.-H., Lee, B. H., Kim, D. W., Kim, Y. S., Park, K., Hwang, M., Barcelon, E. E., Cho, Y. K., Lee, C. J., et al. (2023) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-023-01406-4 · Cited by 58
Cytokine variations and mood disorders: influence of social stressors and social support
Audet, M., McQuaid, R. J., Merali, Z., & Anisman, H. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00416 · Cited by 60
“…variations come to be translated into specific behavioral changes is uncertain, nor is it known how chronicity of social stressors will affect cytokine-related disturbances, although it seems that chronic social stressors favor the development of varied pathological conditions (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Background
Social status, glucocorticoids, immune function, and health: Can animal studies help us understand human socioeconomic-status-related health disparities?
Cavigelli, S. A., & Chaudhry, H. S. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.07.006 · Cited by 60
Cognitive epidemiology: Its rise, its current issues, and its challenges
Deary, I. J. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.012 · Cited by 62
Rates of self-directed behaviour and faecal glucocorticoid levels are not correlated in female wild olive baboons ( Papio hamadryas anubis )
Higham, J. P., MacLarnon, A. M., Heistermann, M., Ross, C., & Semple, S. (2009) · Stress · doi:10.3109/10253890902756565 · Cited by 59
Immune function and HPA axis activity in free-ranging rhesus macaques
Hoffman, C. L., Higham, J. P., Heistermann, M., Coe, C. L., Prendergast, B. J., & Maestripieri, D. (2011) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.05.021 · Cited by 61
“) and rhesus monkeys [46,47], making them ideal models for research on the relationship between psychosocial and reproductive stress, endocrine and immune function, and health in aging individuals.”
Background
The Intestinal Eukaryotic and Bacterial Biome of Spotted Hyenas: The Impact of Social Status and Age on Diversity and Composition
Heitlinger, E. G., Ferreira, S. C. M., Thierer, D., Hofer, H., & East, M. L. (2017) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2017.00262 · Cited by 56
“In social mammals, social status often determines access to resources (Clutton-Brock and Huchard, 2013) thereby affecting health status (Sapolsky, 2005), wound healing (Archie et al.”
Background
Stress-induced changes in social dominance are scaled by AMPA-type glutamate receptor phosphorylation in the medial prefrontal cortex
Park, M., Seo, B. A., Lee, B., Shin, H., & Kang, M. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-33410-1 · Cited by 57
Beyond the challenge hypothesis: The emergence of the dual-hormone hypothesis and recommendations for future research
Knight, E. L., Sarkar, A., Prasad, S., & Mehta, P. H. (2020) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104657 · Cited by 60
“Stress plays a fundamental role in animal competition and mating, which are relevant to social status (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Background
The centennial of the pecking order: current state and future prospects for the study of dominance hierarchies
Strauss, E. D., Curley, J. P., Shizuka, D., & Hobson, E. A. (2022) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0432 · Cited by 62
“Furthermore, in some cases, achieving and maintaining high dominance status can be costly [62 – 64].”
Background
Gender- and age-related differences in the association between social relationship quality and trait levels of salivary cortisol
Booth, A., Granger, D. A., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2008) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00559.x · Cited by 58
Fission–fusion processes weaken dominance networks of female Asian elephants in a productive habitat
de Silva, S., Schmid, V., & Wittemyer, G. (2017) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/arw153 · Cited by 70
Effects of age on cerebrospinal fluid oxytocin levels in free-ranging adult female and infant rhesus macaques.
Parker, K. J., Hoffman, C. L., Hyde, S. A., Cummings, C. S., & Maestripieri, D. (2010) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/a0019576 · Cited by 59
“In rhesus monkeys and other primates, low dominance rank is associated with chronic psychosocial stress and hyperactivation of the HPA axis (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Demopolis: Democracy before Liberalism in Theory and Practice
Ober, J. (2017) · Cited by 58
Complexities of Using Wild versus Captive Activity Budget Comparisons for Assessing Captive Primate Welfare
Howell, C. P., & Cheyne, S. M. (2018) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1080/10888705.2018.1500286 · Cited by 63
“…2006; Morgan & Tromborg, 2007; Muller & Wrangham, 2004; Murray, Heintz, Lonsdorf, Parr, & Santymire, 2013; Ostner, Heistermann, & Schulke, 2008; Sapolsky, 2005; Sapolsky, Romero, & Munck, 2000; Thompson, Muller, Kahlenberg, & Wrangham, 2010; Vanlangendonck, Nuñez, Chaves, & GutiérrezEspeleta,…”
Background
Stress and Learning in Pupils: Neuroscience Evidence and its Relevance for Teachers
Whiting, S. B., Wass, S. V., Green, S., & Thomas, M. S. C. (2021) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12282 · Cited by 82
“For example, a child struggling in a classroom may be a key member of social hierarchies within a school team, which potentially would reduce his or her psychosocial stress (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Frontal neurons driving competitive behaviour and ecology of social groups
Li, S. W., Zeliger, O., Strahs, L., Báez-Mendoza, R., Johnson, L. M., Wojciechowski, A. M., & Williams, Z. M. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04000-5 · Cited by 61
Social connections predict brain structure in a multidimensional free-ranging primate society
Testard, C., Brent, L. J. N., Andersson, J., Chiou, K. L., Valle, J. E. N.-D., DeCasien, A. R., Acevedo-Ithier, A., Stock, M. K., Antón, S. C., González, O., et al. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abl5794 · Cited by 58
“In the laboratory, macaque brain structure and function correlate with group size ( 6 , 7 ) and social status ( 8 , 9 ).”
Social inequalities in health in nonhuman primates
Shively, C. A., & Day, S. M. (2014) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2014.11.005 · Cited by 60
Baboon (Papio anubis) social complexity—a network approach
Lehmann, J., & Ross, C. (2011) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20967 · Cited by 56
POVERTY POISONS THE BRAIN
Lende, D. H. (2012) · Annals of Anthropological Practice · doi:10.1111/j.2153-9588.2012.01099.x · Cited by 57
Social withdrawal: An initially adaptive behavior that becomes maladaptive when expressed excessively
Ike, K. G. O., de Boer, S. F., Buwalda, B., & Kas, M. J. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.06.030 · Cited by 64
“While it is currently under discussion how stress is related to rank, it is clear that whenever there is a dispute over the hierarchical status quo this leads to a social conflict (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Early deprivation induces competitive subordinance in C57BL/6 male mice
Benner, S., Endo, T., Endo, N., Kakeyama, M., & Tohyama, C. (2014) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.06.018 · Cited by 54
“Among social behaviors, the dominance tendency has been proposed as a promising attribute to study stress-induced psychopathogenesis [17,18].”
Background
Extraversion predicts longer survival in gorillas: an 18-year longitudinal study
Weiß, A., Gartner, M. C., Gold, K. C., & Stoinski, T. S. (2012) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.2231 · Cited by 57
“Moreover, based on a review of primate social hierarchies and health, we predicted that gorillas lower in dominance will experience more stress and, consequently, have poorer health [13].”
Background
Control of finite critical behaviour in a small-scale social system
Daniels, B. C., Krakauer, D. C., & Flack, J. C. (2017) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms14301 · Cited by 53
Migration and dementia: a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies in Europe
Selten, J., Termorshuizen, F., van Sonsbeek, M., Bogers, J. P. A. M., & Schmand, B. A. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720000586 · Cited by 59
“Moreover, research of non-human primates has shown an inverse relationship between rank and risk of atherosclerosis and a mediating role of cortisol (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Background
Individual and regional association between socioeconomic status and uncertainty stress, and life stress: a representative nationwide study of China
Yang, T., Yang, X. Y., Yu, L., Cottrell, R. R., & Jiang, S. (2017) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-017-0618-7 · Cited by 59
“Primates with lower power have demonstrated adverse adrenocortical, reproductive, immunological, and neurobiological functioning [14, 15].”
Background
Genetic, epigenetic and environmental impact on sex differences in social behavior
Shepard, K. N., Michopoulos, V., Toufexis, D. J., & Wilson, M. E. (2009) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.02.016 · Cited by 61
“physical and emotional health [159,160], the adverse effects of chronic stress on the reproductive axis have been studied extensively.”
Background
Religious Factors and Hippocampal Atrophy in Late Life
Owen, A. D., Hayward, R. D., Koenig, H. G., Steffens, D. C., & Payne, M. E. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0017006 · Cited by 55
“primarily explored neuronal death [32,65,66,67,68,69], decreased neurogenesis [70,71,72,73] and dendritic retraction [74,75].”
Background
Social Dominance in Childhood and Its Evolutionary Underpinnings: Why It Matters and What We Can Do
Hawley, P. H. (2015) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2014-3549d · Cited by 55
“”28 This perspective is appealing because: (1) it empowers the victim (there is nothing wrong with “you”); (2) it offers us solace that aggression does not pay; and (3) it assures us that children and adolescents in the end are not motivated by power.”
Background
Rousseau with a Tail
Sapolsky, R. M. (2013) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199858996.003.0021 · Cited by 55
Self-citation
Relational neuroscience: Insights from hyperscanning research
Felice, S. D., Chand, T., Croy, I., Engert, V., Goldstein, P., Holroyd, C. B., Kirsch, P., Krach, S., Ma, Y., Scheele, D., et al. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105979 · Cited by 72
“In fact, it is well known that most social groups are hierarchically structured (e.g., Sapolsky, 2005; Sidanius et al., 2001), and that the hierarchical structure and different status of within-group relationships shape interpersonal interactions among group members (e.g., Halevy et al., 2011; H.…”
Creative Destruction, Economic Insecurity, Stress, and Epidemic Obesity
Wisman, J. D., & Capehart, K. W. (2010) · American Journal of Economics and Sociology · doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.2010.00728.x · Cited by 57
Oxidative status and social dominance in a wild cooperative breeder
Cram, D. L., Blount, J. D., & Young, A. J. (2014) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.12317 · Cited by 55
“The endocrine correlates of social dominance and their fitness implications have long been a focus of research effort in ecology and biomedicine (Wasser & Barash 1983; Creel 2001; Sapolsky 2005; Young et al. 2006; Young & Monfort 2009).”
Background
Rank-Related Fitness Differences and Their Demographic Pathways in Semi-Free-Ranging Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta)
Blomquist, G. E., Sade, D. S., & Berard, J. D. (2010) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-010-9461-z · Cited by 55
“Whatever the cause, high rank is expected to confer some net benefit in fitness for female primates (Koenig 2002; Sapolsky 2005).”
Background
Subordinate male cichlids retain reproductive competence during social suppression
Kustan, J. M., Maruska, K. P., & Fernald, R. D. (2011) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.0997 · Cited by 55
Social defeat protocol and relevant biomarkers, implications for stress response physiology, drug abuse, mood disorders and individual stress vulnerability: a systematic review of the last decade
Vasconcelos, M., Stein, D. J., & de Almeida, R. M. M. (2015) · Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1590/2237-6089-2014-0034 · Cited by 55
The Life Sentence: Using a Narrative Approach in Group Psychotherapy with Offenders
Adshead, G. M. J. (2011) · Group Analysis · doi:10.1177/0533316411400969 · Cited by 54
The roots of ecological dominance orientation: Assessing individual preferences for an anthropocentric and hierarchically organized world
Uenal, F., Sidanius, J., Maertens, R., Hudson, S. T. J., Davis, G., & Ghani, A. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101783 · Cited by 53
Linking the social environment to illness in farm animals
Proudfoot, K. L., Weary, D. M., & von Keyserlingk, M. A. G. (2012) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2012.02.008 · Cited by 60
The High Price of Success: Costs of Mating Effort in Male Primates
Thompson, M. E., & Georgiev, A. V. (2014) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-014-9790-4 · Cited by 55
“For example, when mating effort induces a glucocorticoid response, this can also affect the immune system, increasing susceptibility to disease and impairing the wound healing process (Sapolsky 2005; Christian et al. 2006; Segerstrom 2007).”
Background
Vulnerability to chronic subordination stress-induced depression-like disorders in adult 129SvEv male mice
Dadomo, H., Sanghez, V., Di Cristo, L., Lori, A., Ceresini, G., Malinge, I., Parmigiani, S., Palanza, P., Sheardown, M., & Bartolomucci, A. (2011) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.11.016 · Cited by 54
Social status drives social relationships in groups of unrelated female rhesus macaques
Snyder‐Mackler, N., Kohn, J. N., Barreiro, L. B., Johnson, Z. P., Wilson, M. E., & Tung, J. (2015) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.10.033 · Cited by 53
“Finally, dominance rank in nonhuman primates is often used as a model for understanding the effects of social adversity on health (reviewed in: Marmot & Sapolsky, 2014; Sapolsky, 2004, 2005).”
Method
Socially dominant mice in C57BL6 background show increased social motivation
Kunkel, T. J., & Wang, H. (2017) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2017.08.038 · Cited by 51
“When considering the societal organization of social creatures, it has been found that social hierarchy plays a potential role in general health and well-being (2, 4).”
Background
Epigenetics, brain, behavior, and the environment
Crews, D. P. (2010) · HORMONES · doi:10.14310/horm.2002.1251 · Cited by 54
From classic ethology to modern neuroethology: overcoming the three biases in social behavior research
Zilkha, N., Sofer, Y., Beny, Y., & Kimchi, T. (2016) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2016.04.014 · Cited by 52
“Such a test does not allow a direct examination of how social hierarchies are established and maintained as they typically are in nature [65,66].”
Background
Do wealth and inequality associate with health in a small-scale subsistence society?
Jaeggi, A. V., Blackwell, A. D., Rueden, C. R. V., Trumble, B. C., Stieglitz, J., García, A. R., Kraft, T. S., Beheim, B., Hooper, P. L., Kaplan, H. S., et al. (2021) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.59437 · Cited by 57
Discovering pockets of complexity: Socioeconomic status, stress exposure, and the nuances of the health gradient
Schieman, S., & Koltai, J. (2016) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.09.023 · Cited by 53
Social comparisons and social anxiety in daily life: An experience-sampling approach.
Goodman, F. R., Kelso, K. C., Wiernik, B. M., & Kashdan, T. B. (2021) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000671 · Cited by 68
Nonhuman primate models of social behavior and cocaine abuse
Nader, M. A., Czoty, P. W., Nader, S. H., & Morgan, D. (2012) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2843-5 · Cited by 52
“In his review on social hierarchy and primate health, Sapolsky (2005) differentiated between physical stressors (external challenges to homeostasis) and psychosocial stressors , which he defined as " anticipation, justified or not, that a challenge to homeostasis looms " (p. 648).”
Inductive Game Theory and the Dynamics of Animal Conflict
DeDeo, S., Krakauer, D. C., & Flack, J. C. (2010) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000782 · Cited by 49
“Such turbulent periods can increase the probability of injury and stress, both of which are associated with increased mortality [26].”
Background
Scratching around stress: Hierarchy and reconciliation make the difference in wild brown lemurs (Eulemur fulvus)
Palagi, E., & Norscia, I. (2010) · Stress · doi:10.3109/10253890.2010.505272 · Cited by 52
Health and Inequality
O’Donnell, O., van Doorslaer, E. K. A., & Ourti, T. V. (2013) · Handbook of income distribution · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-59429-7.00018-2 · Cited by 60
Social bonds predict dominance trajectories in adult male chimpanzees
Bray, J., Feldblum, J. T., & Gilby, I. C. (2021) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.06.031 · Cited by 51
Variation in vervet (Chlorocebus aethiops) hair cortisol concentrations reflects ecological disturbance by humans
Fourie, N. H., Turner, T. R., Brown, J. L., Pampush, J. D., Lorenz, J. G., & Bernstein, R. M. (2015) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-015-0486-y · Cited by 51
“Although adaptive in the short term, chronic activation of this endocrine axis can have negative consequences that affect fitness (Sapolsky 1992; De Kloet et al. 1999; Chrousos 2000; Sapolsky 2004, 2005).”
Illegitimacy improves goal pursuit in powerless individuals
Willis, G. B., Guinote, A., & Rodríguez‐Bailón, R. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.10.009 · Cited by 54
“In a similar vein, studies with non-human primates indicate that when power hierarchies are unstable, subordinate animals exhibit less maladaptive stress responses (Rivers & Josephs, in press; Sapolsky, 2005).”
Result
The Roles of Dopamine D2 Receptor in the Social Hierarchy of Rodents and Primates
Yamaguchi, Y., Lee, Y., Kato, A., Jas, E., & Goto, Y. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep43348 · Cited by 55
“Studies have demonstrated that higher social rank non-human primates are more aggressive and impulsive 13–17 , although in relation to impulsivity, this is not always true 12 and could be even sometimes false 33 .”
A novel pathway regulates social hierarchy via lncRNA AtLAS and postsynaptic synapsin IIb
Ma, M., Xiong, W., Hu, F., Deng, M., Huang, X., Chen, J., Man, H., Lu, Y., Liu, D., & Zhu, L. (2020) · Cell Research · doi:10.1038/s41422-020-0273-1 · Cited by 49
Spatial networks differ when food supply changes: Foraging strategy of Egyptian fruit bats
Bachorec, E., Horáček, I., Hulva, P., Konečný, A., Lučan, R., Jedlička, P., Shohdi, W. M., Řeřucha, Š., Abi-Said, M. R., & Bartonička, T. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0229110 · Cited by 50
Physiological indicators of stress in African forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) in relation to petroleum operations in Gabon, Central Africa
Munshi‐South, J., Tchignoumba, L., Brown, J. L., Abbondanza, N., Maldonado, J. E., Henderson, A., & Alonso, A. (2008) · Diversity and Distributions · doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00509.x · Cited by 50
“…hormones play an adaptive role in vertebrate behaviour (Boonstra, 2005), but chronically high glucocorticoid concentrations brought about by psychological disturbance have a myriad of negative physiological effects (e.g. suppression of reproduction and immune function in primates, Sapolsky, 2005).”
Background
The relative importance of family socioeconomic status and school-based peer hierarchies for morning cortisol in youth: An exporatory study
West, P., Sweeting, H. N., Young, R., & Kelly, S. (2010) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.12.006 · Cited by 50
“These results are interpreted in the context of Sapolsky's (Sapolsky, 2005) predictions for stress responses to hierarchical position in stable and unstable social systems, the former represented by the scholastic hierarchy involving elevated cortisol in lower positions, the latter by peer hierarchy with elevated cort…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Dominance rank causally affects personality and glucocorticoid regulation in female rhesus macaques
Kohn, J. N., Snyder‐Mackler, N., Barreiro, L. B., Johnson, Z. P., Tung, J., & Wilson, M. E. (2016) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.09.005 · Cited by 49
“Within these groups, dominance rank has been associated with altered neuroendocrine function (reviewed in Sapolsky, 2005) and survival (Blomquist et al., 2011), although the magnitude and directionality of rank effects vary depending on the social dynamics of the species, population, and sex…”
Physiological mechanisms mediating patterns of reproductive suppression and alloparental care in cooperatively breeding carnivores
Montgomery, T. M., Pendleton, E. L., & Smith, J. E. (2018) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.11.006 · Cited by 50
“These studies have clarified that dominance hierarchies, social stability, and other features that differentiate wild groups from captive ones likely influence this endocrine relationship [44].”
Inequality rules: Resource distribution and the evolution of dominance- and prestige-based leadership
Ronay, R., Maddux, W. W., & von Hippel, W. (2018) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.04.004 · Cited by 55
“…facilitate dominance of the troop (King, Douglas, Huchard, Isaac, & Cowlishaw, 2008), which in turn allows for the control of food sharing – critical for buying and maintaining allies (Silk, 2005) – and the control of reproductive opportunities that permit these traits to flourish (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Background
Personality and bullying: Pathways to adolescent social dominance
Volk, A. A., Provenzano, D. A., Farrell, A. H., Dane, A. V., & Shulman, E. P. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00182-4 · Cited by 55
How feedback and feed‐forward mechanisms link determinants of social dominance
Dehnen, T., Arbon, J. J., Farine, D. R., & Boogert, N. J. (2022) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.12838 · Cited by 54
The stress of being alone: Removal from the colony, but not social subordination, increases fecal cortisol metabolite levels in eusocial naked mole-rats
Edwards, P. D., Mooney, S. J., Bosson, C. O., Toor, I., Palme, R., Holmes, M. M., & Boonstra, R. (2020) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104720 · Cited by 48
Glucocorticoid stress responses of lions in relationship to group composition, human land use, and proximity to people
Creel, S., Christianson, D., & Schuette, P. A. (2013) · Conservation Physiology · doi:10.1093/conphys/cot021 · Cited by 50
“All of these effects can be explained by the observation that aggression and agonistic interaction typically increase glucocorticoid secretion (Sapolsky, 2005), as has been reported for several other carnivore species (Creel et al., 1992, 1996; Hacklander et al., 2003; Sands and Creel, 2004; Young…”
Background
Seasonality, sociality, and reproduction: Long-term stressors of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta)
Starling, A. P., Charpentier, M. J. E., Fitzpatrick, C. L., Scordato, E. S. C., & Drea, C. M. (2009) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.09.016 · Cited by 49
“Such studies have revealed significant interindividual variation within species in the manner in which animals cope with stressors, which can be shaped, for instance, by social standing, age, or genetic constitution (Abbott et al., 2003; Moberg, 2000; Sapolsky, 2005).”
Social Subordination and Polymorphisms in the Gene Encoding the Serotonin Transporter Enhance Estradiol Inhibition of Luteinizing Hormone Secretion in Female Rhesus Monkeys1
Michopoulos, V., Berga, S. L., Kaplan, J. R., & Wilson, M. E. (2009) · Biology of Reproduction · doi:10.1095/biolreprod.109.079038 · Cited by 49
“Because social subordination in macaques is considered a potent psychosocial stressor [71–73], typically characterized by a dysregulated limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (LHPA) axis [4, 74, 75], the most parsimonious explanation is that the increased suppression of LH in subordinate females is due to stress hormo…”
Background
Strategic and tactical fighting decisions in cichlid fishes with divergent social systems
Hick, K. G., Reddon, A. R., O’Connor, C. M., & Balshine, S. (2013) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-00003122 · Cited by 49
“One way that group-living animals reduce the cost and frequency K. Hick et al. / Behaviour 151 (2014) 47–71 49 of aggression is by forming dominance hierarchies (Drews, 1993; Sapolsky, 2005).”
Background
Sources of variation in hair cortisol in wild and captive non-human primates
Fourie, N. H., Brown, J. L., Jolly, C. J., Phillips‐Conroy, J. E., Rogers, J., & Bernstein, R. M. (2016) · Zoology · doi:10.1016/j.zool.2016.01.001 · Cited by 49
The Burden of Power: Construing Power as Responsibility (Rather Than as Opportunity) Alters Threat-Challenge Responses
Scholl, A., de Wit, F., Ellemers, N., Fetterman, A. K., Sassenberg, K., & Scheepers, D. T. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167218757452 · Cited by 50
“High (vs. low) power facilitates challenge (Akinola & Mendes, 2014; Scheepers et al., 2012), though personal and structural factors can limit these benefits (Josephs et al., 2006; Sapolsky, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluential
Infected or informed? Social structure and the simultaneous transmission of information and infectious disease
Evans, J., Silk, M. J., Boogert, N. J., & Hodgson, D. J. (2020) · Oikos · doi:10.1111/oik.07148 · Cited by 54
Nucleus accumbens dichotomically controls social dominance in male mice
Shan, Q., Hu, Y., Chen, S., & Tian, Y. (2021) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-021-01220-1 · Cited by 50
Correlated evolution of social organization and lifespan in mammals
Zhu, P., Liu, W., Zhang, X., Li, M., Liu, G., Yu, Y., Li, X., Li, X., Du, J., Wang, X., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-35869-7 · Cited by 55
Self- and Other-Orientation in High Rank: A Cultural Psychological Approach to Social Hierarchy
Gobel, M. S., & Miyamoto, Y. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683231172252 · Cited by 65
“Indeed, high rank reduces stress and results in better health (Adler et al., 2000; Cloutier et al., 2013; Sapolsky, 2005; Sherman et al., 2012).”
Background
Hormonal correlates of male life history stages in wild white-faced capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus)
Jack, K. M., Schoof, V. A. M., Sheller, C. R., Rich, C. I., Klingelhofer, P. P., Ziegler, T. E., & Fedigan, L. M. (2013) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2013.10.010 · Cited by 48
An integrative view of the signaling phenotype: Dynamic links between signals, physiology, behavior and social context
Vitousek, M. N., Zonana, D. M., & Safran, R. J. (2014) · Current Zoology · doi:10.1093/czoolo/60.6.739 · Cited by 48
“In social groups with linear dominance hierarchies, glucocorticoid levels, as well as the range of social behaviors exhibited, are often strongly associated with social rank (Abbott et al., 2003; Sapolsky, 2005; Gesquiere et al., 2011).”
Background
Why are behavioral and immune traits linked?
Lopes, P. C. (2016) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.09.008 · Cited by 50
“For instance, changes in social status are associated with neuroendocrine, behavioral and immune changes (Sapolsky, 2005; Maruska, 2015).”
Social connectedness is associated with fibrinogen level in a human social network
Kim, D. A., Benjamin, E. J., Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2016) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.0958 · Cited by 50
Relationships between affiliative social behavior and hair cortisol concentrations in semi-free ranging rhesus monkeys
Wooddell, L. J., Hamel, A. F., Murphy, A. M., Byers, K. L., Kaburu, S., Meyer, J. S., Suomi, S. J., & Dettmer, A. M. (2017) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.06.018 · Cited by 48
“Given that sociality relates to long-term HPA axis activity, and that long-term HPA axis activity can negatively affect health (Sapolsky, 2005), our results suggest that a potential mechanism for the link between sociality and health may be via mediation by the HPA axis.”
Influential
Neural and behavioural correlates of repeated social defeat
Butler, J. M., Whitlow, S. M., Roberts, D. A., & Maruska, K. P. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-25160-x · Cited by 49
Physiological and immunological responses of birds and mammals to forest degradation: A meta-analysis
Messina, S., Edwards, D. P., Eens, M., & Costantini, D. (2018) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.06.002 · Cited by 52
Primates in trade
Linder, J. M., Sawyer, S., & Brashares, J. S. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199659449.003.0018 · Cited by 47
Keeping up with environmental change: The importance of sociality
Komdeur, J., & Ma, L. (2021) · Ethology · doi:10.1111/eth.13200 · Cited by 52
Differential responses to distinct psychotropic agents of selectively bred dominant and submissive animals
Nesher, E., Gross, M., Lisson, S., Tikhonov, T., Yadid, G., & Pinhasov, A. (2012) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2012.08.040 · Cited by 49
Suitability of the clonal marbled crayfish for biogerontological research: a review and perspective, with remarks on some further crustaceans
Vogt, G. (2010) · Biogerontology · doi:10.1007/s10522-010-9291-6 · Cited by 48
“In social animal groups, longevity of the dominant can either be prolonged or shortened, depending on the social organization and the degree of stress that is exerted on the dominants or subordinates (von Holst et al. 1999; Sapolsky 2005).”
Linking social environment and stress physiology in feral mares (Equus caballus): Group transfers elevate fecal cortisol levels
Nuñez, C. M. V., Adelman, J. S., Smith, J. K., Gesquiere, L. R., & Rubenstein, D. I. (2013) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2013.11.012 · Cited by 47
“252 Although stress in itself is not inherently detrimental to animal fitness or well-being 253 (Moberg, 2000), the stress response can become pathogenic when experienced chronically 254 (Sapolsky, 2005).”
Influential
Social stratification, classroom climate, and the behavioral adaptation of kindergarten children
Boyce, W. T., Obradović, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Kim, Y. S., & Adler, N. E. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1201730109 · Cited by 47
“Irrespective of its possible adaptive value, exposure to agonistic subordination systematically alters key biological processes, such as cytokine signaling (15) and stress reactivity pathways (16, 17), modifies neurotransmitter and neurotrophin expression patterns in critical brain regions (18), and undermines disease…”
Background
Effects of Relocation and Individual and Environmental Factors on the Long-Term Stress Levels in Captive Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Monitoring Hair Cortisol and Behaviors
Yamanashi, Y., Teramoto, M., Morimura, N., Hirata, S., Inoue‐Murayama, M., & Idani, G. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0160029 · Cited by 47
Physiological stress responses to natural variation in predation risk: evidence from white sharks and seals
Hammerschlag, N., Meÿer, M. A., Seakamela, S. M., Kirkman, S. P., Fallows, C., & Creel, S. (2017) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.2049 · Cited by 47
Comparative connectomics of the primate social brain
Yokoyama, C., Autio, J. A., Ikeda, T., Sallet, J., Mars, R. B., Essen, D. C. V., Glasser, M. F., Sadato, N., & Hayashi, T. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118693 · Cited by 44
“Social dominance is a major feature of primate societies (Chiao, 2010; Sapolsky, 2005).”
Background

Authors: Sapolsky, R. M.
Affiliations: Institute of Primate Research (KE)
Corresponding author: Sapolsky, Robert M.
ORCID: Sapolsky, Robert M.
Venue: Science
Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Published: 2005-04-29
Volume: 308
Issue: 5722
Pages: 648-652
ISSN: 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
1095-9203
DOI: 10.1126/science.1106477
OpenAlex: W2165558339
Cited by: 2,113
References: 50
Citations by year: 2026: 82 · 2025: 102 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 145 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 102 · 2020: 98 · 2019: 172 · 2018: 120 · 2017: 106 · 2016: 146 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 112 · 2013: 127 · 2012: 102
FWCI: 6.52
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Science (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Primate Behavior and Ecology
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Keywords: dominance hierarchy, social rank, primate health, stress, adrenocortical stress response, cardiovascular effects, reproductive effects, immunological effects, neurobiology, socioeconomic status, human health, social organization
MeSH terms: Animals, Anxiety, Behavior, Animal, Cardiovascular Physiological Phenomena, Catecholamines, Dominance-Subordination, Health Status, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Immune System, Nervous System Physiological Phenomena, Primates, Reproduction, Social Behavior, Social Class, Social Dominance, Stress, Physiological

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The Influence of Social Hierarchy on Primate Health

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks