Defaunation in the Anthropocene

In the paper

“Across vertebrates, 16% to 33% of all species are estimated to be globally threatened or endangered (17,18)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [17] 17. IUCN, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species <www.iucnredlist.org> (2013)
• Supported

  The “Status, trends, and threats” section states that, accounting for uncertainty from Data Deficient species, between 16% and 33% of all vertebrate species are classified as Threatened. This directly supports the cited estimate. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites [18] 18. M. Hoffmann et al., Science 330, 1503 (2010). source

In the paper

“The long-established major proximate drivers of wildlife population decline and extinction in terrestrial ecosystems, namely overexploitation, habitat destruction, and impacts from invasive species remain pervasive (18).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The opening summary (p. 1503) identifies agricultural expansion, logging, overexploitation, and invasive alien species as main drivers of biodiversity loss among mammals, birds, and amphibians. The “Confronting threats” section adds that conservation has not yet offset any major driver of increased extinction risk. Agricultural expansion and logging substantiate the claim’s reference to habitat destruction. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites [18] 18. M. Hoffmann et al., Science 330, 1503 (2010). source

In the paper

“None of these major drivers have been effectively mitigated at the global scale (14,18).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. S. H. Butchart et al., Science 328, 1164 (2010). source
• Supported

  In “Confronting threats” (page not supplied), the paper says that deteriorations outnumber improvements for every threat assessed and concludes that conservation has not yet offset any major driver of increased extinction risk. This supports the claim at the global scale, within the paper’s scope of vertebrate extinction risk. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites [18] 18. M. Hoffmann et al., Science 330, 1503 (2010). source

In the paper

“the effects of defaunation will be much less about the loss of absolute diversity than about local shifts in species compositions and functional groups within a community (80).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Conclusions (page not available) describe the replacement of large herbivores by smaller mammals and arthropods, and the ‘Effects of large mammals on small mammals’ section reports changes in vegetation and consumer abundance. These support local shifts in the community, but the paper does not establish that such shifts matter more than losses of absolute diversity or make a general comparison of the two effects of defaunation. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  cites [80] 80. M. Dornelas et al., Science 344, 296 (2014). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“and few major human pathogens seem to fit the criteria that would make such a relationship pervasive (71).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  In “Predicting the Biodiversity–Disease Relationship” (page not available), the authors project that biodiversity would reduce the prevalence of only 12% of the infectious disease species they assessed. They conclude that negative biodiversity–disease relationships may be relatively uncommon, supporting the citing sentence’s hedged claim. Their assessment covers common pathogenic human protozoan and metazoan parasites, not viruses or bacteria. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites [71] 71. C. L. Wood, K. D. Lafferty, G. DeLeo, H. S. Young, A. M. Kuris, Ecology 95, 817http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/13-1041.1 (2014). source

In the paper

“However, the impacts of defaunation on disease are far from straightforward (71)”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Introduction says that biodiversity loss is likely to produce both “winners and losers” among parasites. “Where Do We Go From Here?” adds that the biodiversity–disease relationship may be nonlinear and either positive or negative. These passages support the claim that the disease effects of defaunation are not straightforward; page numbers were not provided. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites [71] 71. C. L. Wood, K. D. Lafferty, G. DeLeo, H. S. Young, A. M. Kuris, Ecology 95, 817http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/13-1041.1 (2014). source

In the paper

“Of a conservatively estimated 5-9 million animal species on the planet, we are likely losing ~11,000 to 58,000 species annually (15,16).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [15] 15. C. Mora, A. Rollo, D. P. Tittensor, Science 493, 295 (2013).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [16] 16. B. R. Scheffers, L. N. Joppa, S. L. Pimm, W. F. Laurance, Trends Ecol. Evol. 27, 501 (2012).

In the paper

“with populations of many iconic species such as elephant (Fig S1B) rapidly declining towards extinction (19).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“Among terrestrial vertebrates 322 species have become extinct since 1500, while populations of the remaining species show 25% average decline in abundance.”

• Also stated in: § Defaunation: a pervasive phenomenon · plain

  “Across vertebrates, 16% to 33% of all species are estimated to be globally threatened or endangered (17,18), and at least 322 vertebrate species have become extinct since 1500 (a date representative of onset of the recent wave of extinction, as formal definition of the start of the Anthropocene still being debated) (17,19,20) (Table S1).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [17] 17. IUCN, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species <www.iucnredlist.org> (2013)
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [20] 20. G. Ceballos, A. García, P. R. Ehrlich, J. Cosmol. 8, 1821 (2010).

In the paper

“Invertebrate patterns are equally dire: 67% of monitored populations show 45% mean abundance decline.”

In the paper

“From an abundance perspective, vertebrate data indicate a mean decline of 28% in number of individuals across species in the last four decades (14,21,22) (Fig S1A), with populations of many iconic species such as elephant (Fig S1B) rapidly declining towards extinction (19).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. S. H. Butchart et al., Science 328, 1164 (2010). source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [21] 21. B. Collen et al., Conserv. Biol. 23, 317 (2009).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [22] 22. LPR, "Living Planet Report 2012: Biodiversity, biocapacity and better choices" (WWF, Zoological Society of London, Global Footprint Network, European Space Agency, 2012).

In the paper

“Among terrestrial vertebrates 322 species have become extinct since 1500, while populations of the remaining species show 25% average decline in abundance.”

In the paper

“Non-Lepidopteran invertebrates declined significantly more”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“However, data suggest that the rates of decline in numbers, species extinction, and range contraction among terrestrial invertebrates are at least as severe as among vertebrates (23,24).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [23] 23. B. Collen, M. Böhm, R. Kemp, J. Baillie, "Spineless: status and trends of the world's invertebrates" (Zoological Society of London, 2012).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [24] 24. B. Collen, J. E. Baillie, Science 329, 40 (2010).

In the paper

“The myriad consequences of such differential defaunation have been quantified via the experimental manipulation of the large wildlife in an African savanna (Fig 4, Table S3), revealing significant effects on biodiversity, ecological processes and ecosystem functioning.”

In the paper

“Similarly, IUCN data on the status of 203 insect species in five orders reveals vastly more species in decline than increasing (Fig 1A).”

In the paper

“Globally, long-term monitoring data on a sample of 452 invertebrate species indicate that there has been an overall decline in abundance of individuals since 1970 (19) (Fig 1C).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“of those assessed, around 40% are considered threatened (17,23,24).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [17] 17. IUCN, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species <www.iucnredlist.org> (2013)
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [23] 23. B. Collen, M. Böhm, R. Kemp, J. Baillie, "Spineless: status and trends of the world's invertebrates" (Zoological Society of London, 2012).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [24] 24. B. Collen, J. E. Baillie, Science 329, 40 (2010).

In the paper

“Although less than 1% of the 1.4 million described invertebrate species have been assessed for threat by the IUCN”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [17] 17. IUCN, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species <www.iucnredlist.org> (2013)
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [23] 23. B. Collen, M. Böhm, R. Kemp, J. Baillie, "Spineless: status and trends of the world's invertebrates" (Zoological Society of London, 2012).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [24] 24. B. Collen, J. E. Baillie, Science 329, 40 (2010).

In the paper

“Likewise, for the invertebrates where trends have been evaluated in Europe, there is a much higher proportion of species with numbers decreasing rather than increasing (23).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [23] 23. B. Collen, M. Böhm, R. Kemp, J. Baillie, "Spineless: status and trends of the world's invertebrates" (Zoological Society of London, 2012).

In the paper

“Long term distribution data on moths and four other insect Orders in the UK show that a substantial proportion of species have experienced severe range declines in the last several decades (19,25) (Fig 1B).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [25] 25. R. Fox et al., J. Appl. Ecol., 11/1365-2664.12256 (2014).

In the paper

“Focusing on just the Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), for which the best data are available, there is strong evidence of declines in abundance globally (35% over 40 years, Fig 1C).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“These trends persist even after factoring in the greater species diversity of the tropics (29,30).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [29] 29. R. Dirzo, P. H. Raven, Ann. Rev. Environ. Resour. 28, 137 (2003).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [30] 30. C. N. Jenkins, S. L. Pimm, L. N. Joppa, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. 110, E2602 (2013).

In the paper

“among pairs of disturbed and undisturbed sites globally, Lepidopteran species richness is on average 7.6 times higher in undisturbed than disturbed sites”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“and total abundance is 1.6 times greater (19) (Fig 1D).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“Differences in body masses between distributions of currently threatened and non-threatened species suggest ongoing patterns of size-differential defaunation (Kolmogorv-Smirnov test, K=1.3 P<0.0001) (19).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“Globally, a compiled index of all invertebrate population declines over the last 40 years shows an overall 45% decline”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“Trends among UK insects (with colors indicating % decrease over 40 years) show 30-60% of species per Order have declining ranges (19).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of effects of anthropogenic disturbance on Lepidoptera, the best studied invertebrate taxon, shows significant overall declines in diversity (19).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“size of all animals that are known to have gone extinct in Pleistocene or are recently extinct (< 5,000 years BP) shows selective impact on animals with larger body sizes (median values denoted with black arrow).”

In the paper

“although decline for Lepidoptera is less severe than for other taxa (19).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“defined by IUCN as currently experiencing decline, represented in numbers of individuals per 10,000 km 2 for mammals and birds, shows profound impacts of defaunation across the globe.”

In the paper

“Changes in animal abundance from low (blue, L) to high (red, H) within a region have been shown to affect a wide range of ecological processes and services (19) including: A) seed dispersal (flying foxes), B) litter respiration and decomposition (seabirds), C) carrion removal (vultures), D) herbivory (large mammals), E) water quality and stream restoration (amphibians), F) trampling of seedlings (”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“While species extinctions are of great evolutionary significance, declines in the number of individuals in local populations and changes in the composition of species in a community will generally cause greater immediate impacts on ecosystem function (8,10).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [8] 8. G. Ceballos, P. R. Ehrlich, Science 296, 904 (2002).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [10] 10. K. J. Gaston, R. A. Fuller, Trends Ecol. Evol. 23, 14 (2008).

In the paper

“Analyses of the impacts of global biodiversity loss typically base their conclusions on data derived from species extinctions (1,7,8)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. A. D. Barnosky et al., Nature 471, 51 (2011). source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [7] 7. A. D. Barnosky et al., Nature 486, 52 (2012). source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [8] 8. G. Ceballos, P. R. Ehrlich, Science 296, 904 (2002).

In the paper

“This recent pulse of animal loss, hereafter referred to as the Anthropocene defaunation, is not only a conspicuous consequence of human impacts on the planet, but also a primary driver of global environmental change in its own right.”

In the paper

“However, whilst remote sensing technology provides rigorous quantitative information and compelling images of the magnitude, rapidity and extent of patterns of deforestation, defaunation remains a largely cryptic phenomenon.”

In the paper

“making it difficult to quantify without intensive surveys.”

In the paper

“while the extinction of a species often proceeds slowly (11)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [11] 11. B. W. Brook, N. S. Sodhi, C. J. Bradshaw, Trends Ecol. Evol. 23, 453 (2008).

In the paper

“In the past 500 years, humans have triggered a wave of extinction, threat, and local population declines that may be comparable in both rate and magnitude to the five previous mass extinctions of Earth's history (1).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. A. D. Barnosky et al., Nature 471, 51 (2011). source

In the paper

“abundance declines within populations to functionally extinct levels can occur rapidly (2,12).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [2] 2. M. Cardillo et al., P. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. Bio. 275, 1441 (2008).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [12] 12. T. Säterberg, S. Sellman, B. Ebenman, Nature 499, 468 (2013).

In the paper

“Such animal declines will cascade onto ecosystem functioning and human well-being.”

In the paper

“typically evaluations of the effects of biodiversity loss draw heavily from small scale manipulations of plants and small sedentary consumers (9).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] 9. D. U. Hooper et al., Nature 486, 105 (2012). source

In the paper

“It can occur even in large protected habitats (6)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [6] 6. C. A. Peres, E. Palacios, Biotropica 39, 304 (2007).

In the paper

“Actual extinction events are also hard to discern”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [13] 13. A. Ø. Mooers, D. P. Faith, W. P. Maddison, PloS one 3, e3700 (2008).

In the paper

“Whilst the magnitude and frequency of extinction events remain a potent way of communicating conservation issues, they are only a small part of the actual loss of biodiversity (14).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. S. H. Butchart et al., Science 328, 1164 (2010). source

In the paper

“IUCN threat categories amalgamate symptoms of high risk, conflating declining population and small populations”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [13] 13. A. Ø. Mooers, D. P. Faith, W. P. Maddison, PloS one 3, e3700 (2008).

In the paper

“Both of these approaches likely underestimate the full impacts of biodiversity loss.”

In the paper

“However, this does not consider population extirpations and declines in animal abundance within populations.”

In the paper

“Similarly, species with life history characteristics that make them robust to disturbance may be particularly competent at carrying zoonotic and therefore especially important at driving disease emergence (41,42).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [41] 41. F. Keesing et al., Nature 468, 647 (2010). source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [42] 42. P. T. Johnson, D. L. Preston, J. T. Hoverman, K. L. Richgels, Nature 494, 230 (2013).

In the paper

“Rather, all show increasing trajectories in recent decades (14).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. S. H. Butchart et al., Science 328, 1164 (2010). source

In the paper

“We are increasingly aware that trait correlations are generally weaker at the population level than at the global scale (31,35).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [31] 31. M. Cardillo, E. Meijaard, Trends Ecol. Evol. 27, 167 (2012).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [35] 35. M. J. Pocock, P. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. Bio. 278, 1532 (2011).

In the paper

“Similarly most of 177 mammal species have lost more than 50% of their range (9).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] 9. D. U. Hooper et al., Nature 486, 105 (2012). source

In the paper

“For instance, large-bodied animals with large home ranges often play unique roles in connecting ecosystems and transferring energy between them (40).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [40] 40. D. J. McCauley et al., Ecol. Appl. 22, 1711 (2012).

In the paper

“and for tropical mammals than for temperate ones (36).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [36] 36. S. A. Fritz, O.R.P. Bininda-Emonds, A. Purvis, Ecol. Lett. 12, 538 (2009).

In the paper

“indicating that estimates of decline of invertebrates based on Lepidoptera data alone are conservative (19) (Fig 1C).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

In the paper

“Notably, certain lineages appear to be particularly susceptible to human impact.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [27] 27. J. Schipper et al., Science 322, 225 (2008). source

In the paper

“For example, small geographic range size, low reproductive rates, large home range size, and large body size recur across many studies and diverse taxa as key predictors of extinction risk, at least among vertebrates.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [32] 32. A. D. Davidson et al., P. Natl. Acad. Sci. 106, 10702 (2009).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [33] 33. E. Öckinger et al., Ecol. Lett. 13, 969 (2010).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [34] 34. T. M. Lee, W. Jetz, P. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. Bio. 278, 1329 (2011).

In the paper

“The relatively well-established pattern of correlation between body size and risk in mammals creates a predictable size selective defaunation gradient (Fig 3) (19,36,43).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [36] 36. S. A. Fritz, O.R.P. Bininda-Emonds, A. Purvis, Ecol. Lett. 12, 538 (2009).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [43] 43. M. Di Marco et al., Conserv. Biol., (2014).

In the paper

“Similarly, we now recognize that extinction risk is often a synergistic function of both intrinsic species traits and the nature of threat (32,(34)(35)(36)(37).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [32] 32. A. D. Davidson et al., P. Natl. Acad. Sci. 106, 10702 (2009).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [34] 34. T. M. Lee, W. Jetz, P. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. Bio. 278, 1329 (2011).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [35] 35. M. J. Pocock, P. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. Bio. 278, 1532 (2011).

In the paper

“Disease, primarily involving human introduced pathogens, is also a major, and growing threat (46).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [46] 46. K. F. Smith, D. F. Sax, K. D. Lafferty, Conserv. Biol. 20, 1349 (2006).

In the paper

“Similarly, land use change is making it difficult for animals to expand their distributions into areas made suitable by climate change (25,48).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [25] 25. R. Fox et al., J. Appl. Ecol., 11/1365-2664.12256 (2014).
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [48] 48. S. T. Jackson, D. F. Sax, Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 153 (2010).

In the paper

“For example, large body size is more important for predicting risk in island birds than mainland birds (34)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [34] 34. T. M. Lee, W. Jetz, P. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. Bio. 278, 1329 (2011).

In the paper

“For example, fragmentation increases accessibility to humans, compounding threats of reduced habitat and exploitation (47).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [47] 47. C. A. Peres, Conserv. Biol. 14, 240 (2000).

In the paper

“For example about 20% of the landbirds in the western hemisphere are predicted to go extinct due to climate change by 2100 (45).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [45] 45. C. H. Sekercioglu, S. H. Schneider, J. P. Fay, S. R. Loarie, Conserv. Biol. 22, 140 (2008).

In the paper

“A recent meta-analyses of biodiversity-ecosystem function studies suggests that the impact of biodiversity losses on ecosystem functions is comparable in scale with that of other global changes (e.g.pollution, nutrient deposition) (9).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] 9. D. U. Hooper et al., Nature 486, 105 (2012). source

In the paper

“Several studies have detected rapid evolutionary changes in morphology or life history of short-lived organisms (72), or human exploited species (73).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [72] 72. S. R. Palumbi, Science 293, 1786 (2001). source
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  cites [73] 73. C. T. Darimont et al., P. Natl. Acad. Sci. 106, 952 (2009).

In the paper

“Cumulatively, systematic defaunation clearly threatens to fundamentally alter basic ecological functions”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [7] 7. A. D. Barnosky et al., Nature 486, 52 (2012). source

In the paper

“The effects of defaunation appear not just proximally important to the ecology of impacted species and systems, but also have evolutionary consequences.”

In the paper

“Cumulatively, these ubiquitous small predator trophic cascades can have enormous impacts on a wide variety of ecological functions including food production.”

In the paper

“Declines in insect pollinator diversity in Northern Europe in the last 30 years has, for example, been linked to strong declines in relative abundance of plant species reliant on those pollinators (54).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [54] 54. J. Biesmeijer et al., Science 313, 351 (2006). source

In the paper

“Defaunation can also affect disease transmission in myriad ways, including by changing the abundance, behavior, and competence of hosts (69).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [69] 69. R. S. Ostfeld, F. Keesing, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 43, 157 (2012).

In the paper

“Yet, defaunation is affecting smaller and less charismatic fauna in similar ways.”

In the paper

“Focusing on changes in diversity metrics is thus unlikely to be effective for maintaining adequate ecological function”

In the paper

“The diversity of invertebrate communities, particularly their functional diversity, can have dramatic impacts on decomposition rates and nutrient cycling (59)(60)(61).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites (59)(60)(61)

In the paper

“Efforts to quantify effects of changes in animal diversity on ecosystem function, particularly terrestrial vertebrate diversity, remain more limited (supplementary online methods) (51).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] 51. B. J. Cardinale et al., Nature 443, 989 (2006). source

In the paper

“smaller individuals are often unable to replace fully the ecological services their larger counterparts provide”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [74] 74. M. Galetti, C. I. Donatti, M. A. Pizo, H. C. Giacomini, Biotropica 40, 386 (2008).

In the paper

“Declines in mobile species that move nutrients long distances have been shown to greatly impact patterns of nutrient distribution and cycling (62).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [62] 62. H. S. Young, D. J. McCauley, R. B. Dunbar, R. Dirzo, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. 107, 2072 (2010).

In the paper

“vertebrate populations used for food are estimated to have declined by at least 15% since 1970 (14).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. S. H. Butchart et al., Science 328, 1164 (2010). source

In the paper

“there is strong potential for cascading effects resulting from changing body size distributions (74).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [74] 74. M. Galetti, C. I. Donatti, M. A. Pizo, H. C. Giacomini, Biotropica 40, 386 (2008).

In the paper

“These actions can also buy necessary time to address the other critical driver, anthropogenic climate disruption.”

In the paper

“Several studies demonstrate increases in disease prevalence following defaunation (41,42,70).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [41] 41. F. Keesing et al., Nature 468, 647 (2010). source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [42] 42. P. T. Johnson, D. L. Preston, J. T. Hoverman, K. L. Richgels, Nature 494, 230 (2013).
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  cites [70] 70. H. S. Young et al., P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 201404958 (2014).

In the paper

“Between 23-36% of all birds, mammals and amphibians used for food or medicine are now threatened with extinction (14).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. S. H. Butchart et al., Science 328, 1164 (2010). source

In the paper

“Observational and experimental studies show that declines in small vertebrates frequently lead to multi-trophic cascades affecting herbivore abundance, plant damage, and plant biomass (56).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [56] 56. D. S. Karp et al., Ecol. Lett. 16, 1339 (2013).

In the paper

“defaunation of vertebrates often selects on body size”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [74] 74. M. Galetti, C. I. Donatti, M. A. Pizo, H. C. Giacomini, Biotropica 40, 386 (2008).

In the paper

“Defaunation can also impact water quality and dynamics of freshwater systems.”

In the paper

“Without natural biological control this value could increase up to 37% (57).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [57] 57. E.-C. Oerke, J. Agr. Sci. 144, 31 (2006).

In the paper

“For example, changes in abundance or composition of pollinators or seed dispersers can cause rapid evolution in plant mating systems and seed morphology (75,76).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [75] 75. S. A. Bodbyl Roels, J. K. Kelly, Evolution 65, 2541 (2011).
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [76] 76. M. Galetti et al., Science 340, 1086 (2013). source

In the paper

“For example, loss of pest control from ongoing bat declines in North America are predicted to cause more than $22 billion in lost agricultural productivity (68).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [68] 68. J. G. Boyles, P. M. Cryan, G. F. McCracken, T. H. Kunz, Science 332, 41 (2011).

In the paper

“As animal loss represents a major change in biodiversity, it is likely to have important effects on ecosystem functioning.”

In the paper

“Feedbacks amongst these and other drivers seem more likely to amplify the effects of defaunation, than to dampen them (11).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [11] 11. B. W. Brook, N. S. Sodhi, C. J. Bradshaw, Trends Ecol. Evol. 23, 453 (2008).

In the paper

“current levels are clearly untenable (67)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [67] 67. J. E. Fa, C. A. Peres, J. Meeuwig, Conserv. Biol. 16, 232 (2002).

In the paper

“If unchecked, Anthropocene defaunation will become not only a characteristic of the planet's sixth mass extinction, but also a driver of fundamental global transformations in ecosystem functioning.”

In the paper

“In the US alone, the value of pest control by native predators is estimated at $4.5 billion annually (58).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [58] 58. J. E. Losey, M. Vaughan, Bioscience 56, 311 (2006).

In the paper

“Defaunation will affect human health in many other ways, via reductions in ecosystem goods and services (65) including pharmaceutical compounds, livestock species, biocontrol agents, food resources and disease regulation.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [65] 65. S. S. Myers et al., P. Natl. Acad. Sci. 110, 18753 (2013).

In the paper

“As previously detailed, food production may decline due to reduced pollination, seed dispersal and insect predation.”

In the paper

“Pollinators appear to be strongly declining globally in both abundance and diversity (53).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [53] 53. S. G. Potts et al., Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 345 (2010).

In the paper

“These consequences have been better recognized in the case of large mammals (78,79).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [78] 78. J. A. Estes et al., Science 333, 301 (2011). source
• ?Not matched

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  cites [79] 79. W. J. Ripple et al., Science 343, 1241484 (2014). SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

In the paper

“Among large animals, Pleistocene extinctions are thought to have changed influx of the major limiting nutrient, Phosphorus, in the Amazon by ~98%, with implications persisting today (3).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [3] 3. C. E. Doughty, A. Wolf, Y. Malhi, Nat. Geosci. 6, 761 (2013).

In the paper

“mitigation of animal overexploitation and land use change are two feasible, immediate actions that can be taken (44).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] 44. O. E. Sala et al., Science 287, 1770 (2000). source

In the paper

“the effects of selective large wildlife removal (species >15kg) drive strong cascading consequences on other taxa, on interactions, and on ecosystem services (81).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [81] 81. F. Keesing, T. P. Young, Bioscience 64, 487 (2014).

In the paper

“This removal leads to changes in the abundance or diversity of other consumer groups (Panel B).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [81] 81. F. Keesing, T. P. Young, Bioscience 64, 487 (2014).

In the paper

“Experimental defaunation also impacts plantanimal interactions, notably altering the mutualism between ants and the dominant tree, Acacia drepanolobium (Panel C), driving changes in fruit production (FP), ant defense by some species (AD), herbivory of shoots (He), thorn production (TP), nectary production (NP), and spine length (SL).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [81] 81. F. Keesing, T. P. Young, Bioscience 64, 487 (2014).

In the paper

“large wildlife are effectively removed by fences (Panel A), as evidenced by mean difference in dung abundance (± 1 SE) between control and exclosure plots (A).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [81] 81. F. Keesing, T. P. Young, Bioscience 64, 487 (2014).