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Cited by 4,305Species Distribution and Climate ChangeEcosystem dynamics and resilienceAnimal Ecology and Behavior Studies

Defaunation in the Anthropocene

Open access
Dirzo, Rodolfo, Young, Hillary S., Galetti, Mauro, Ceballos, Gerardo, Isaac, Nick J. B., Collen, Ben·2014·Science
DOI 10.1126/science.1251817
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Abstract

We live amid a global wave of anthropogenically driven biodiversity loss: species and population extirpations and, critically, declines in local species abundance. Particularly, human impacts on animal biodiversity are an under-recognized form of global environmental change. Among terrestrial vertebrates, 322 species have become extinct since 1500, and populations of the remaining species show 25% average decline in abundance. Invertebrate patterns are equally dire: 67% of monitored populations show 45% mean abundance decline. Such animal declines will cascade onto ecosystem functioning and human well-being. Much remains unknown about this “Anthropocene defaunation”; these knowledge gaps hinder our capacity to predict and limit defaunation impacts. Clearly, however, defaunation is both a pervasive component of the planet’s sixth mass extinction and also a major driver of global ecological change.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1126/science.1251817

Cites

164 of 164 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

6 of 136 cited sources checked · 5 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingcitation

    Across vertebrates, 16% to 33% of all species are estimated to be globally threatened or endangered.

    “Across vertebrates, 16% to 33% of all species are estimated to be globally threatened or endangered (17,18)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17] 17. IUCN, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species <www.iucnredlist.org> (2013)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [18] 18. M. Hoffmann et al., Science 330, 1503 (2010). source
  • Premisecitation

    Overexploitation, habitat destruction, and invasive species impacts remain pervasive major proximate drivers of terrestrial wildlife decline and extinction.

    “The long-established major proximate drivers of wildlife population decline and extinction in terrestrial ecosystems, namely overexploitation, habitat destruction, and impacts from invasive species remain pervasive (18).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] 18. M. Hoffmann et al., Science 330, 1503 (2010). source
  • Premisecitation

    No major driver has been effectively mitigated globally.

    “None of these major drivers have been effectively mitigated at the global scale (14,18).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [14] 14. S. H. Butchart et al., Science 328, 1164 (2010). source
    • cites [18] 18. M. Hoffmann et al., Science 330, 1503 (2010). source
  • Interpretationcitation

    The effects of defaunation will be less about the loss of absolute diversity than about local shifts in species composition and functional groups within a community.

    “the effects of defaunation will be much less about the loss of absolute diversity than about local shifts in species compositions and functional groups within a community (80).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [80] 80. M. Dornelas et al., Science 344, 296 (2014). source

      The Conclusions (page not available) describe the replacement of large herbivores by smaller mammals and arthropods, and the ‘Effects of large mammals on small mammals’ section reports changes in vegetation and consumer abundance. These support local shifts in the community, but the paper does not establish that such shifts matter more than losses of absolute diversity or make a general comparison of the two effects of defaunation. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    It appears that few major human pathogens meet the conditions for such a pervasive relationship.

    “and few major human pathogens seem to fit the criteria that would make such a relationship pervasive (71).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [71] 71. C. L. Wood, K. D. Lafferty, G. DeLeo, H. S. Young, A. M. Kuris, Ecology 95, 817http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/13-1041.1 (2014). source
  • May combine two claims. 24
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the authors' evaluation of 1437 mammal and 4263 bird species, the number of declining species per 10,000 km2 ranged from a few to 75 for mammals and 125 for birds across regions, with the highest counts in tropical regions.

    “In our evaluation of mammals (1437 species) and birds (4263 species), the number of species per 10,000 km 2 in decline (IUCN population status “decreasing”) varied across regions from a few to 75 in mammals and 125 in birds (Fig 2), with highest numbers in tropical regions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Of all insects with IUCN documented population trends, 33% are declining, with strong variation among Orders.

    “Of all insects with IUCN documented population trends, 33% are declining, with strong variation among Orders 19).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] 19. Materials and methods are available in the Supplementary Materials.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Counts of threatened species do not necessarily indicate extinction risk or ecological impact.

    “counts of threatened species do not necessarily translate into extinction risk, much less ecological impact (13).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] 13. A. Ø. Mooers, D. P. Faith, W. P. Maddison, PloS one 3, e3700 (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Extinctions at the end of the last Ice Age, mostly of large vertebrates, changed ecosystem processes and disturbance regimes at continental scales and triggered extinction cascades that may still reverberate.

    “These extinctions altered ecosystem processes and disturbance regimes at continental scales, triggering cascades of extinction thought to still reverberate today (3,4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] 3. C. E. Doughty, A. Wolf, Y. Malhi, Nat. Geosci. 6, 761 (2013).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [4] 4. J. L. Gill et al., Science 326, 1100 (2009). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The sixth extinction wave affects many taxonomic groups but is selective, hitting some groups and regions especially hard.

    “Similar to other mass extinction events, the effects of this”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] 2. M. Cardillo et al., P. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. Bio. 275, 1441 (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Defaunation is both a widespread part of the sixth mass extinction and a major driver of global ecological change.

    “Clearly, however, defaunation is both a pervasive component of the planet's sixth mass extinction, and also a major driver of global ecological change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Many aspects of Anthropocene defaunation remain unknown, and these gaps limit the ability to predict and reduce its impacts.

    “Much remains unknown about this”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Invertebrate biodiversity loss has received much less attention, and data are extremely limited.

    “Loss of invertebrate biodiversity has received much less attention and data are extremely limited.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Anthropogenic biodiversity loss includes extirpations of species and populations and declines in local abundance.

    “We live amidst a global wave of anthropogenically driven biodiversity loss: species and population extirpations and, critically, declines in local species abundance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Some animal species can persist in highly modified habitats.

    “some animal species are able to persist in highly modified habitats”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    New threats have appeared, especially anthropogenic climate disruption, which is likely soon to rival habitat loss as the leading driver of defaunation.

    “Moreover, several newer threats have recently emerged, most notably anthropogenic climate disruption, which will likely soon compete with habitat loss as the most important driver of defaunation (44).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] 44. O. E. Sala et al., Science 287, 1770 (2000). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most declining species are affected by multiple stressors, but understanding of how drivers interact and of possible feedback loops remains poor.

    “While most declining species are affected by multiple stressors, we still have a poor understanding of the complex ways in which these drivers interact, and of feedback loops that may exist (7,11).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [7] 7. A. D. Barnosky et al., Nature 486, 52 (2012). source
    • cites [11] 11. B. W. Brook, N. S. Sodhi, C. J. Bradshaw, Trends Ecol. Evol. 23, 453 (2008).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Defaunation is a global pattern, but its geographic distribution is decidedly non-random.

    “While defaunation is a global pattern, geographic distribution patterns are also decidedly non-random (28).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] 28. S. Pimm et al., Science 344, 1246752 (2014). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increasingly sophisticated approaches can predict which species are likely at risk and map latent extinction risk, promising for managing defaunation and identifying ecological impacts.

    “However, increasingly sophisticated approaches help to predict which species are likely to be at risk, and to map latent extinction risk (38), holding great promise both for managing defaunation and identifying likely patterns of ecological impact (39).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [38] 38. M. Cardillo, G. M. Mace, J. L. Gittleman, A. Purvis, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103, 4157 (2006).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [39] 39. H. Hillebrand, B. Matthiessen, Ecol. Lett. 12, 1405 (2009).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Among vertebrates, amphibians have a higher proportion currently threatened (41%) than birds (17%), with mammals and reptiles intermediate.

    “For instance, among vertebrates, more amphibians (41%) are currently considered threatened than birds (17%), with mammals and reptiles experiencing intermediate threat levels (27).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] 27. J. Schipper et al., Science 322, 225 (2008). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Extinction models based on traits have had little impact on conservation management, partly because trait correlations are often idiosyncratic and context-dependent.

    “However, these 'extinction models' have made little impact on conservation management, in part because trait correlations are often idiosyncratic and context dependent (31).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] 31. M. Cardillo, E. Meijaard, Trends Ecol. Evol. 27, 167 (2012).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The cryptic nature of defaunation has strong potential to soon become very non-cryptic, rivaling other global change impacts in loss of ecosystem services essential for human well-being.

    “Ironically, the cryptic nature of defaunation has strong potential to soon become very non-cryptic, rivaling the impact of many other forms of global change in terms of loss of ecosystem services essential for human well-being.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Predicting systematic patterns of winners and losers in the Anthropocene and identifying their traits will provide information on patterns and links to function that can be acted upon.

    “we need to focus on predicting the systematic patterns of winners and losers in the Anthropocene and identify the traits that characterize them, as this will provide information on the patterns and the links to function that we can then act upon.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Defaunation encompasses more than species loss.

    “we emphasize that defaunation is about much more than species loss.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most efforts to quantify biodiversity-ecosystem function relationships have focused on reduced producer diversity, which may have much lower functional impacts than consumer loss.

    “However, most efforts to quantify this relationship have focused largely on effects of reduced producer diversity, which may typically have much lower functional impacts than does consumer loss (49,50).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [49] 49. J. Reiss, J. R. Bridle, J. M. Montoya, G. Woodward, Trends Ecol. Evol. 24, 505 (2009).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [50] 50. B. J. Cardinale et al., Nature 486, 59 (2012). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Ongoing declines in populations of animals such as nematodes, beetles, or bats are considerably less evident to humans.

    “Ongoing declines in populations of animals such as nematodes, beetles, or bats, are considerably less evident to humans”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reduced and more evenly distributed global resource consumption will be necessary to sustainably change ongoing trends in defaunation and eventually open the door to refaunation.

    “Ultimately, both reduced and more evenly distributed global resource consumption will be necessary to sustainably change ongoing trends in defaunation and, hopefully, eventually open the door to refaunation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Continued human population growth and increasingly uneven per-capita consumption ultimately drive all these threats.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Ongoing declines in populations of animals such as nematodes, beetles, or bats are arguably more functionally important.

    “yet arguably are more functionally important”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A recent study in Madagascar suggested that loss of wildlife as a food source will increase anemia by 30%, leading to increased mortality, morbidity, and learning difficulties.

    “One recent study in Madagascar suggested that loss of wildlife as a food source will increase anemia by 30%, leading to increased mortality, morbidity and learning difficulties (66).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [66] 66. C. D. Golden et al., P. Natl. Acad. Sci. 108, 19653 (2011).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: In many parts of the world, wild animal food sources are a critical part of the diet, particularly for the poor.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Insect pollination is required for 75% of global food crops and is valued at roughly a tenth of the economic worth of the entire world food supply.

    “Insect pollination, needed for 75% of all the world's food crops, is estimated to be worth ~10% of the economic value of the world's entire food supply (52).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] 52. N. Gallai, J.-M. Salles, J. Settele, B. E. Vaissière, Ecological Economics 68, 810 (2009).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In New Zealand, losses of bird pollinators caused severe pollen limitation, which lowered seed production and population regeneration.

    “Similarly, declines in bird pollinators in New Zealand led to strong pollen limitation, ultimately reducing seed production and population regeneration (55) (Fig 5H).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55] 55. S. H. Anderson et al., Science 331, 1068 (2011). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    We are facing a broad and pervasive defaunation crisis that has far-reaching consequences.

    “This review indicates that a widespread and pervasive defaunation crisis, with farreaching consequences, is upon us.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Large animals such as ungulates, hippos, and crocodiles prevent anoxic zone formation through agitation and affect water movement through trampling.

    “Large animals, including ungulates, hippos, and crocodiles, prevent formation of anoxic zones through agitation and affect water movement through trampling (64).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] 64. J. P. Wright, C. G. Jones, A. S. Flecker, Oecologia 132, 96 (2002).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Global amphibian declines increase algae and fine detritus biomass, reduce nitrogen uptake, and greatly reduce whole stream respiration.

    “For instance, global declines in amphibian populations increase algae and fine detritus biomass, reduce nitrogen uptake, and greatly reduce whole stream respiration (Fig 5E; (63)).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] 63. M. Whiles et al., Ecosystems 16, 146 (2013). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Large wildlife removal causes major effects on ecosystem functions and services, including changes to fire intensity, cattle production, disease prevalence, arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi infectivity, photosynthetic rates, and transpiration rates.

    “Large wildlife removal also causes major effects on ecosystem functions and services (Panel D), including changes to fire intensity (Fi); cattle production in both dry (C-D) and wet seasons (C-W); disease prevalence (D); infectivity of arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi (AMF); photosynthetic rates (Ph); and transpiration rates (TR).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] 81. F. Keesing, T. P. Young, Bioscience 64, 487 (2014).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

30 of 30

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The year 1500 is a representative starting point for the recent wave of extinction.

    “(a date representative of onset of the recent wave of extinction, as formal definition of the start of the Anthropocene still being debated)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In many parts of the world, wild animal food sources are a critical part of the diet, particularly for the poor.

    “In many parts of the world, wild animal food sources are a critical part of the diet, particularly for the poor.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The indirect evolutionary effects of defaunation on species not directly impacted by human defaunation are still poorly studied.

    “Still poorly studied are the indirect evolutionary effects of defaunation on other species, not directly impacted by human defaunation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Arthropod pests are responsible for 8-15% of the losses in most major food crops.

    “For example, arthropod pests are responsible for 8-15% of the losses in most major food crops.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Continued human population growth and increasingly uneven per-capita consumption ultimately drive all these threats.

    “continued human population growth and increasingly uneven per-capita consumption, which ultimately drive all these threats”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Biases lead to underestimating the number of species that have gone extinct in the past few centuries.

    “the literature reflects broad agreement among environmental scientists that biases lead to underestimating the number of species that have gone extinct in the past few centuries”

    From Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction (2015) · cites this paper as [8]

    The Abstract says actual extinction events are hard to discern, and ‘Defaunation: a pervasive phenomenon’ reports at least 322 vertebrate extinctions since 1500. Those passages are consistent with incomplete counts, but they do not say that biases cause an underestimate of the number of species extinct in recent centuries or establish broad agreement among environmental scientists on that point. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Hundreds of species and myriad populations are being driven to extinction every year.

    “Hundreds of species and myriad populations are being driven to extinction every year (1–8).”

    From Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines (2017) · cites this paper as [2]

    In “Defaunation: a pervasive phenomenon” (page not provided), the paper estimates that 11,000–58,000 animal species are lost annually, supporting the claim of at least hundreds each year. It also discusses population extirpations and declines, but does not give an annual rate for population extinctions. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Current species extinction rates are higher than the pre-human background rate.

    “A growing body of evidence indicates that current species extinction rates are higher than the pre-human background rate (8–15)”

    From Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction (2015) · cites this paper as [8]

  • Today's planetary defaunation of vertebrates will itself promote cascading catastrophic effects on ecosystems, worsening the annihilation of nature.

    “This suggests that, even if there was not ample sign that the crisis extends far beyond that group of animals, today’s planetary defaunation of vertebrates will itself promote cascading catastrophic effects on ecosystems, worsening the annihilation of nature (2, 3, 46).”

    From Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines (2017) · cites this paper as [2]

  • By losing populations and species of vertebrates, we are losing intricate ecological networks involving animals, plants, and microorganisms.

    “In sum, by losing populations (and species) of vertebrates, we are losing intricate ecological networks involving animals, plants, and microorganisms (e.g., refs. 2, 8, 18, 45, 46).”

    From Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines (2017) · cites this paper as [2]

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Mora C., Rollo A., Tittensor D. P., Science 443, 295 (2013).
  2. Ceballos G., García A., Ehrlich P. R., J. Cosmol. 8, 1821 (2010).
  3. Myers N., Int. Wildl. 5, 5 (1975).
  4. Aebischer N., Potts G., Methods 38, 4 (1990).
  5. Moore N., Odonatologica 20, 203 (1991).
  6. Lyons S. K., Smith F. A., Brown J. H., Evol. Ecol. Res. 6, 339 (2004).

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Related

Authors
Dirzo, R., Young, H. S., Galetti, M., Ceballos, G., Isaac, N. J. B., & Collen, B.
Affiliations
  • Stanford University (US)
  • University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
  • Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp) (BR)
  • Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (MX)
  • Natural Environment Research Council (GB)
  • University College London (GB)
Corresponding author
Dirzo, Rodolfo
ORCID
Venue
Science
Publisher
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Published
2014-07-25
Volume
345
Issue
6195
Pages
401-406
ISSN
  • 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
  • 1095-9203
DOI
10.1126/science.1251817
OpenAlex
W2100135944
Cited by
4,305
References
164
Citations by year
2026: 303 · 2025: 391 · 2024: 372 · 2023: 442 · 2022: 497 · 2021: 471 · 2020: 409 · 2019: 398 · 2018: 279 · 2017: 267 · 2016: 181 · 2015: 165 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 1
FWCI
229.42
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Science (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
  • Acervo Digital da Universidade Estadual Paulista (Universidade Estadual Paulista) (submittedVersion)
  • UNESP Institutional Repository (São Paulo State University) (submittedVersion)
  • Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecological Modeling › Species Distribution and Climate Change
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Ecosystem dynamics and resilience
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
Keywords
defaunation, biodiversity loss, species abundance decline, extinction, invertebrates, terrestrial vertebrates, sixth mass extinction, ecosystem functioning
MeSH terms
Animals, Birds, Humans, Human Activities, Insecta, Invertebrates, Mammals, Pest Control, Population

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-02.

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