The Comparative Analysis of Learning: Are the laws of learning the same in all animals?
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There is no single method that can be applied without bias across taxa.
“Undoubtedly, there is no single method that can be applied without bias across taxa (Bitterman 1975; Savage and Snowdon 1989).”
From How does cognition evolve? Phylogenetic comparative psychology (2012) · cites this paper as Bitterman 1975
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Reward and Learning in the Goldfish
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Spaced-trials partial reinforcement effect as a function of contrast.
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Self-citationReversal learning and the formation of learning sets by cats and rhesus monkeys.
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Reward and aftereffects of reward in the learning of goldfish.
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Intradimensional and extradimensional shift learning by pigeons
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Effects of sucrose concentration and goal units on runway behavior in the rat
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Reward and learning in the turtle
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Self-citationAmobarbital sodium and instrumental performance changes following reward reduction
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The effect of partial reinforcement with spaced practice on resistance to extinction in the fish.
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Self-citationReversal Learning and Forgetting in Bird and Fish
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Self-citationRoberts, W. A., Bullock, D. H., & Bitterman, M. E. (1963) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1419776 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationFURTHER EXPERIMENTS ON PROBABILITY‐MATCHING IN THE PIGEON1
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Self-citationSpaced-trials partial reinforcement and resistance to extinction in the goldfish.
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Self-citationSome observations on the depression effect.
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Self-citationSchusterman, R. J. (1964) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0044309 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Probability-Matching in the Pigeon
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Self-citationIncentive-shift performance as a function of magnitude and number of sucrose rewards.
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Cryptic Moths: Effects on Background Selections of Painting the Circumocular Scales
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Reversal learning by paradise fish (Macropodus opercularis).
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Consecutive intradimensional and extradimensional shifts in monkeys.
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Self-citationPartial reinforcement effect in the goldfish as a function of amount of reward.
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Self-citationDepression effect as a function of retention interval before and after shift in reward magnitude.
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Learning in Adult Rats with Extensive Cortical Lesions Made in Infancy
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Self-citationEffect of drive on successive magnitude shift in rats.
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Some results of comparative-physiological investigations of higher nervous activity.
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Instrumental Learning in Animals: Parameters of Reinforcement
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Self-citationResistance to Extinction in the Goldfish as a Function of Frequency and Amount of Reward
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Self-citationAvoidance-Conditioning in the Fish: Further Studies of the CS-US Interval
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Self-citationEffect of magnitude of reinforcement on acquisition and extinction of a running response.
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Probability-Learning by the Turtle
Kirk, K. L., & Bitterman, M. E. (1965) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.148.3676.1484 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationDiscrimination-Reversal in the Fish
Wodinsky, J., & Bitterman, M. E. (1957) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1419447 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationSpatial and visual habit reversal in the turtle.
Holmes, P. A., & Bitterman, M. E. (1966) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0023675 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationDiscrimination reversal in the goldfish as a function of training conditions.
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Self-citationAvoidance-conditioning in two species of fish
Wodinsky, J., Behrend, E. R., & Bitterman, M. E. (1962) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/0003-3472(62)90134-3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationHabit reversal improvement in the fish
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Probability-learning in the Monkey
Wilson, W. A., Oscar, M., & Bitterman, M. E. (1964) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470216408416361 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationAUTOSHAPING: FURTHER STUDY OF “NEGATIVE AUTOMAINTENANCE”1
Woodard, W. T., Ballinger, J. C., & Bitterman, M. E. (1974) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1901/jeab.1974.22-47 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationPartial Reinforcement in the Fish: Experiments with Spaced Trials and Partial Delay
Gonzalez, R. C., Behrend, E. R., & Bitterman, M. E. (1965) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1420491 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationPrior training influences on transfer to learning set by squirrel monkeys.
Ricciardi, A. M., & Treichler, F. R. (1970) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0030229 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Thorndike and the problem of animal intelligence.
Bitterman, M. E. (1969) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0027942 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationA Further Study of Partial Reinforcement in the Turtle
Gonzalez, R. C., & Bitterman, M. E. (1962) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470216208416521 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationPerformance of the turtle, Pseudemys scripta troostii, in a partial-reinforcement situation.
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Percentage body weight and the successive negative contrast effect in rats
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Overtraining, reversal and extinction in the goldfish
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Self-citationSome comparisons of intra- and extradimensional transfer in discriminative learning of goldfish.
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Self-citationExtradimensional transfer in the discriminative learning of goldfish
Tennant, W., & Bitterman, M. E. (1975) · Animal Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/bf03213431 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationPartial Reinforcement in the Turtle
Eskin, R. M., & Bitterman, M. E. (1961) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470216108416481 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationFurther experiments on probability learning in goldfish
Woodard, W. T., & Bitterman, M. E. (1973) · Animal Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/bf03198993 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationProbability-matching in the goldfish
Behrend, E. R., & Bitterman, M. E. (1966) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03330918 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationFurther experiments on habit reversal in the fish
Behrend, E. R., & Bitterman, M. E. (1967) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03332241 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effect of pretraining in the circle/square discrimination situation
Hemmings, G. (1965) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/0003-3472(65)90036-9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Simultaneous contrast in the goldfish
Burns, R. A., Woodard, W. T., Henderson, T. B., et al. (1974) · Animal Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/bf03199130 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Visual probability-learning in the monkey
Wilson, W. A., Oscar, M., & Bitterman, M. E. (1964) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03342795 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationVisual probability learning in the rat
Bitterman, M. E. (1971) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03332563 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationInterference and Forgetting in Bird and Fish
Behrend, E. R., Powers, A. S., & Bitterman, M. E. (1970) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.167.3917.389 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationGonzalez, R. C., & Shepp, B. E. (1965) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1420578 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Differential reward conditioning in the pigeon
Brownlee, A., & Bitterman, M. E. (1968) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03331344 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationConfinement duration on rewarded and nonrewarded trials and patterning at 24-hour ITI
Surridge, C. T., & Amsel, A. (1968) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03331430 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Classical conditioning in the fish: The CS-US interval.
Klinman, C. S., & Bitterman, M. E. (1963) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0041341 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effect of noise constraints on engine cycle optimization for long-haul transports
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Some further failures to find the visual overlearning-reversal effect in rats.
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Partial reinforcement and classical conditioning in two species of fish
Behrend, E. R., & Bitterman, M. E. (1968) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03328175 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Fractures of the Femur in Children
Derian, P. S. (1962) · Southern Medical Journal · doi:10.1097/00007611-196209000-00020 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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How does cognition evolve? Phylogenetic comparative psychology
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- Authors
- Bitterman, M. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bitterman, M. E.
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 1975-05-16
- Volume
- 188
- Issue
- 4189
- Pages
- 699-709
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W2077636910
- Cited by
- 492
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 8.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational methodologies and cognitive development
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Global Educational Policies and Reforms
- Keywords
- comparative analysis, learning
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