Government-funded research increasingly fuels innovation
Abstract
Nearly a third of U.S. patents rely directly on federal research
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The federal funding process plays a central role in shaping the direction, diversity, and long-run impact of the US scientific enterprise and the global research landscape.
“Thus, the federal funding process plays a central role in shaping the direction, diversity, and long-run impact of the US scientific enterprise and—given America’s scientific leadership—the global research landscape as well (3–10).”
From The rise of large language models and the direction and impact of US federal research funding (2026) · cites this paper as [6]
Decisions about allocation of taxpayer dollars influence which scientific ideas receive support, which fields advance, and which investigators are able to initiate and sustain research programs.
“Through competitive grant programs at agencies such as the NSF and the NIH, decisions about the allocation of taxpayer dollars influence which scientific ideas receive support, which fields advance, and which investigators are able to initiate and sustain research programs (3–10).”
From The rise of large language models and the direction and impact of US federal research funding (2026) · cites this paper as [6]
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“…is expensive and uncertain, firms are increasingly relying on publiclyavailable resources, rather than internal capital, to reduce investment costs and discover opportunities ahead of com petitors (Mowery and Rosenberg, 1999; Scotchmer, 2004; Fleming et al., 2019; Arora et al., 2015, 2019).”
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“(8)We introduce these data, and compare them to Fleming et al. (2019), below.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialReliance on Science by Inventors: Hybrid Extraction of In-text Patent-to-Article Citations
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“We initially used the OCRed files from Fleming, et al. (2019) but found Google’s OCR to be more reliable (though far from perfect).”
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“…295 out of 37,341 unique patent families are multi-purpose adaptation technologies, i.e. are assigned to two or more 6-digit Y02A-classes.5 We further supplemented the data with information on the reliance of individual patents on governmental support (Fleming et al., 2019a; Fleming et al., 2019b).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe diffusion of energy technologies. Evidence from renewable, fossil, and nuclear energy patents
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“Demand-based policy instruments, such as government procurement, are aimed at reducing market uncertainty and promoting the development and stabilization of markets for new technologies (Szczygielski et al. 2017, Fleming et al. 2019, Arranz et al. 2020, Klein et al. 2005, Wang et al. 2022).”
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“Therefore, the data of our study confirm an inversion of the trend of private companies which in past years were not interested in investing directly in research but rather in exploiting the work of universities to obtain patents, as evidenced by studies that analyzed the production of patents until 2016 [3,4].”
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“Gov-ernments often support technologies with immediate or potential socio-economic impact, as well as those essential for national defense (Wolff and Wessner 2012; Weiss 2014; Fleming et al. 2019).”
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“…and vaccines, clean energy, high-performance and networked computing, geoengi-neering, and self-driving cars, without which these developments simply would not exist (Mazzucato 2015; Mervis 2017; Reif 2017; Fleming et al. 2019; Barenie et al. 2021; Lepori, Jongbloed, and Hicks 2023; Myhrvold 2016).”
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Wang, Z., & Wu, W. (2025) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2025.103006 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Giebel, M., & Rösner, A. (2025) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2025.105337 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Schultz, F. C., Czyrnik, V., & Pies, I. (2024) · Sustainability Nexus Forum · doi:10.1007/s00550-024-00558-6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Contract Contingencies and Uncertainty: Evidence from Product Market Contracts
Hui, K., Oh, J., She, G., & Yeung, P. E. (2024) · Journal of Accounting & Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jacceco.2024.101743 · Cited by 3
Beall, R. F., Moradpour, J., & Hollis, A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258013 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
PROXIMITY OF FIRMS TO SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION
Bergeaud, & Guillouzouic (2024) · Annals of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.2307/48767562 · Cited by 3
“…literature consensually establishes that public research funding stimulates private innovation (e.g. Azoulay et al., 2019; Bergeaud et al., 2022; Fleming et al., 2019; Hausman, 2021; Henderson et al., 1998), we show that there is significant heterogeneity in terms of the centrality of scientific…”
Multidimensional bibliometric assessment of science funding effectiveness
Huang, T.-Y., & Xiong, W. (2025) · Journal of Informetrics · doi:10.1016/j.joi.2025.101731 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Nguyen, V., & Carraz, R. (2025) · Scientometrics · doi:10.1007/s11192-025-05275-5 · Cited by 2
“Innovation increasingly relies on scientific knowledge (Fleming et al., 2019; Veuglers & Wang, 2019), making PPPs a promising metric for capturing the commercialization of academic science.”
- Authors
- Fleming, L., Greene, H., Li, G., Marx, M., & Yao, D.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- University of Connecticut (US)
- Boston University (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2019-06-21
- Volume
- 364
- Issue
- 6446
- Pages
- 1139-1141
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W2952066651
- Cited by
- 178
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 27.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Management of Technology and Innovation › Intellectual Property and Patents
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Innovation Policy and R&D
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Research, Science, and Academia
- Keywords
- government-funded research, federal research, patents, innovation, technology transfer, government research funding, commercialization of research
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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