Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus 2 (RHDV2; GI.2) Is Replacing Endemic Strains of RHDV in the Australian Landscape within 18 Months of Its Arrival
Open accessAbstract
Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus 2 (RHDV2; Lagovirus GI.2) is a pathogenic calicivirus that affects European rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) and various hare ( Lepus ) species. GI.2 was first detected in France in 2010 and subsequently caused epidemics in wild and domestic lagomorph populations throughout Europe. In May 2015, GI.2 was detected in Australia. Within 18 months of its initial detection, GI.2 had spread to all Australian states and territories and rapidly became the dominant circulating strain, replacing Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV/GI.1) in mainland Australia. Reconstruction of the evolutionary history of 127 Australian GI.2 isolates revealed that the virus arrived in Australia at least several months before its initial description and likely circulated unnoticed in wild rabbit populations in the east of the continent prior to its detection. GI.2 sequences isolated from five hares clustered with sequences from sympatric rabbit populations sampled contemporaneously, indicating multiple spillover events into hares rather than an adaptation of the Australian GI.2 to a new host. Since the presence of GI.2 in Australia may have wide-ranging consequences for rabbit biocontrol, particularly with the release of the novel biocontrol agent GI.1a/RHDVa-K5 in March 2017, ongoing surveillance is critical to understanding the interactions of the various lagoviruses in Australia and their impact on host populations. IMPORTANCE This study describes the spread and distribution of Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus 2 (GI.2) in Australia since its first detection in May 2015. Within the first 18 months following its detection, RHDV2 spread from east to west across the continent and became the dominant strain in all mainland states of Australia. This has important implications for pest animal management and for owners of pet and farmed rabbits, as there currently is no effective vaccine available in Australia for GI.2. The closely related RHDV (GI.1) is used to control overabundant wild rabbits, a serious environmental and agricultural pest in this country, and it is currently unclear how the widespread circulation of GI.2 will impact ongoing targeted wild rabbit management operations.
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RHDV2 has become the dominant strain circulating in Australia's wild rabbits.
“RHDV2 has become the dominant strain circulating in Australia’s wild rabbits (Mahar et al. 2018).”
From Red fox viromes in urban and rural landscapes (2020) · cites this paper as Mahar et al. 2018
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Ruan, Z., Shao, Q.-Q., Song, Y.-H., Hu, B., Fan, Z., Wei, H., Liu, Y., Wang, F., & Fang, Q. (2024) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01275-24 · Cited by 2
“Since then, RHDV GI.2 strains have gradually replaced the RHDV GI.1 strains as the primary threat to both hare and domestic rabbit populations (10–12).”
Adipose-derived stem cells can alleviate RHDV2 induced acute liver injury in rabbits.
Shi, L., Liu, Y.-M., Liu, Q.-N., Chang, C., Liu, W., & Zhang, Z.-Q. (2024) · Research in Veterinary Science · doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2024.105255 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Immune response in the recombinant strain of Lagovirus europaeus GI.1a.
Bębnowska, D., Hrynkiewicz, R., Korona-Głowniak, I., & Niedźwiedzka-Rystwej, P. (2023) · Infection, Genetics and Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2023.105427 · Cited by 2
Co-circulation of GI.1 and GI.2 genotypes of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus in Egypt
Al-Ebshahy, E., Abas, O., & Abo-Elkhair, M. A. (2022) · VirusDisease · doi:10.1007/s13337-022-00791-x · Cited by 2
Viral Disease in Lagomorphs: A Molecular Perspective
Dalton, K., Podadera, A., Alonso, J. M. M., Sanz, I. C., Rodríguez, Á. L. Á., Casais, R., & Parra, F. (2021) · Lagomorpha Characteristics · doi:10.5772/intechopen.98272 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Outbreak of the disease caused by the rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus 2 in the Russian Federation
Mukhin, A. N., Yuzhakov, A., Selezneva, E., Drozdova, E., Verkhovsky, O., & Aliper, T. (2021) · Agrarian science · doi:10.32634/0869-8155-2021-348-4-25-27 · Cited by 2
Xiang, W., Pan, B.-B., Hao, Y., Wang, F., Bao, J., Su, S.-C., Qie, S., Pan, C., Cao, Z., Liu, X.-Y., et al. (2025) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2025.127427 · Cited by 1
Wang, Y., Fan, Y., Bi, R., Zhao, Y.-P., Gao, W., Zhang, D., & Bai, J. (2025) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines13070695 · Cited by 1
“RHDV2 gradually replaced the classic RHDV as the main circulating strain, but the classic strain still exists and poses a threat to rabbit farming [8].”
Maziz-Bettahar, S., Sahraoui, L., Lahouassa, H., Ainbaziz, H., Cavadini, P., Lavazza, A., & Capucci, L. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-95945-4 · Cited by 1
Peacock, D. E., Iannella, A., Sinclair, R. G., & Kovaliski, J. (2024) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v16101553 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationCooke, B. (2024) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v16081299 · Cited by 1
“When RHDV2 arrived in Australia in 2015, it rapidly displaced RHDV as the most common virus [64].”
BackgroundPauszek, S., Waters, K., Mohamed, F., Lakin, S. M., Moran, K., Minor, M., Creekmore, L., Makhdoomi, M., & Faburay, B. (2024) · Microbiology Resource Announcements · doi:10.1128/mra.01087-23 · Cited by 1
Red fox viromes across an urban-rural gradientPreprint
Campbell, S. J., Ashley, W., Gil-Fernández, M., Newsome, T., Giallonardo, F. D., Ortiz-Baez, A., Mahar, J., Towerton, A. L., Gillings, M., Holmes, E., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.06.15.153858 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“RHDV2 has become the 326 dominant strain circulating in Australia’s wild rabbits (70).”
BackgroundSelf-citationImpfungen beim Kaninchen – ein Update
Lumpp, L. (2026) · kleintier konkret · doi:10.1055/a-2906-2847
Wang, Y., Qiao, P., Wu, H., Tong, X.-D., Wang, T.-Y., Wang, L., Yang, Y., Su, X.-R., Liu, C.-H., Chen, Y., et al. (2026) · BMC Veterinary Research · doi:10.1186/s12917-026-05374-2
“Currently, RHDV2 (GI.2) remains the predominant pathogen in China, consistent with our epidemiological results (42.59% prevalence of RHDV2, no classic RHDV detected), and aligns with global reports on the replacement of the GI.2 genotype [14, 15].”
InfluentialEstruch, J., Almeida, T., Serrano, E., Pereira, L., Rouco, C., Lavín, S., Abrantes, J., Velarde, R., & Lopes, A. M. (2026) · Microbial Ecology · doi:10.1007/s00248-026-02746-x
Kara, D., Pancera, M., Hassanzadeh-Ghassabeh, G., Schoonooghe, S., Masic, V., Hartley-Tassell, L., Mishra, B. P., Ve, T., Haselhorst, T., von Itzstein, M., et al. (2026) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01990-25
Aguayo-Adán, J. A., Santoro, S., Villafuerte, R., Delibes-Mateos, M., Castro, F., Almeida, T., Abrantes, J., & Rouco, C. (2025) · Mammalian Biology · doi:10.1007/s42991-025-00532-9
“The impact of these two genotypes on rabbit populations in the species native range added significant complexity to the epidemiology of RHD in this area, despite the apparently rapid replacement of GI.1 strains by GI.2 (Lopes et al. 2014; Mahar et al. 2018).”
Patel, K., Austin, C., Warner, K., Pickett, M., Khabiri, A., Mahzounieh, M., Hemmatzadeh, F., & Taggart, P. (2024) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.10991
“Despite this, other similar biocontrols, such as CZECH and RHDV2 circulate naturally in Australia at land - scape scales and have made phenomenal contributions to rabbit management (Mahar et al., 2018 ).”
BackgroundPatel, K., Toft, N., Kovaliski, J., Page, B., Appuhamilage, R. M. J. J. E., & Taggart, P. (2024) · Preventive Veterinary Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106137
Self-citationMolecular detection of Viral diarrhea in Rabbits
Sakr, N., Abdelnaser, A., ElBorai, I., & El-Habbaa, A. (2023) · Benha veterinary medical journal · doi:10.21608/bvmj.2023.214177.1667
“Some authors claim that RHDV2 is now the most common strain of the virus in Europe, replacing older RHDV strains and being responsible for the vast majority of reported cases in both wild and domestic rabbits (Mahar et al., 2018).”
BackgroundOptimization of RHDV type 1 and 2 inactivation modes
Kunikova, E., Moroz, N. V., Dolgova, M. A., Malakhova, L., & Komarov, I. (2021) · Veterinary Science Today · doi:10.29326/2304-196x-2021-1-36-22-28
Mahar, J., Shi, M., Hall, R., Strive, T., & Holmes, E. (2019) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/812081
Self-citation
- Authors
- Mahar, J. E., Hall, R. N., Peacock, D., Kovaliski, J., Piper, M., Mourant, R., Huang, N., Campbell, S., Gu, X., Read, A., Urakova, N., Cox, T., Holmes, E. C., & Strive, T.
- Affiliations
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- University of Canberra (AU)
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity (AU)
- Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia (AU)
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries (AU)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Virology
- Publisher
- American Society for Microbiology
- Published
- 2018-01-15
- Volume
- 92
- Issue
- 2
- ISSN
- 0022-538X (ISSN-L)
- 1098-5514
- PMC
- PMC5752944
- OpenAlex
- W2766460557
- Cited by
- 122
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 12.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Virology (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council (DP140103362)
- National Health and Medical Research Council (GNT1037231)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Virus Infections Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Agronomy and Crop Science › Animal Disease Management and Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Zoonotic diseases and public health
- Keywords
- calicivirus, hares, viral spread, phylogenetic inference
- MeSH terms
- Whole Genome Sequencing, Animals, Australia, Europe, Genotype, Phylogeny, Rabbits, Genome, Viral, Caliciviridae Infections, Sequence Analysis, RNA, Hemorrhagic Disease Virus, Rabbit, Endemic Diseases, Hares, Phylogeography
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