Cited by 145Physical Activity and HealthBehavioral Health and InterventionsMobile Health and mHealth Applications

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Financial incentives for physical activity in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis

Mitchell, Marc S, Orstad, Stephanie L, Biswas, Aviroop, Oh, Paul I, Jay, Melanie, Pakosh, Maureen T, Faulkner, Guy·2020·British Journal of Sports Medicine

DOI 10.1136/bjsports-2019-100633

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Abstract

Objective: The use of financial incentives to promote physical activity (PA) has grown in popularity due in part to technological advances that make it easier to track and reward PA. The purpose of this study was to update the evidence on the effects of incentives on PA in adults. Data sources: Medline, PubMed, Embase, PsychINFO, CCTR, CINAHL and COCH. Eligibility criteria: Randomised controlled trials (RCT) published between 2012 and May 2018 examining the impact of incentives on PA. Design: A simple count of studies with positive and null effects (‘vote counting’) was conducted. Random-effects meta-analyses were also undertaken for studies reporting steps per day for intervention and post-intervention periods. Results: 23 studies involving 6074 participants were included (64.42% female, mean age = 41.20 years). 20 out of 22 studies reported positive intervention effects and four out of 18 reported post-intervention (after incentives withdrawn) benefits. Among the 12 of 23 studies included in the meta-analysis, incentives were associated with increased mean daily step counts during the intervention period (pooled mean difference (MD), 607.1; 95% CI: 422.1 to 792.1). Among the nine of 12 studies with post-intervention daily step count data incentives were associated with increased mean daily step counts (pooled MD, 513.8; 95% CI:312.7 to 714.9). Conclusion: Demonstrating rising interest in financial incentives, 23 RCTs were identified. Modest incentives ($1.40 US/day) increased PA for interventions of short and long durations and after incentives were removed, though post-intervention ‘vote counting’ and pooled results did not align. Nonetheless, and contrary to what has been previously reported, these findings suggest a short-term incentive ‘dose’ may promote sustained PA.

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Background
Effects of group communication norms on daily steps in a team-based financial incentive mobile phone intervention in Shanghai, China
Jia, Y., Xiao, Y., Chen, H., Gebel, K., Li, C., Sun, S., Yang, Q., Wang, S., Zhang, L., Wang, J., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-025-01707-w · Cited by 6
Financial incentives for physical activity in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis update
Salmani, B., Harry Prapavessis, A., Vanderloo, L. M., & Mitchell, M. (2025) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2025.108237 · Cited by 6
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Factors Influencing the Implementation of a Fall Prevention Exercise Program for Community-Dwelling Older Adults: A Qualitative Study Guided by the PRECEDE-PROCEED Model
Ong, R. H. S., Nurjono, M., Oh, H. C., Lien, C. T. C., Jumala, J., Teo, R. C. C., Gan, P., Kan, K. L. M., Rosle, L. F. B., Wee, M. K., et al. (2024) · Clinical Interventions in Aging · doi:10.2147/cia.s454043 · Cited by 7
Like Adding a Small Weight to a Scale About to Tip: Personalizing Micro-Financial Incentives for Digital Wellbeing
Jang, S., Seo, Y., Choi, W., & Lee, U. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3714208 · Cited by 6
Cost-effectiveness of physical activity-oriented interventions for improving mental health: a systematic review
Alhusseini, N. K., Lin, T. K., Werner, K., Lin, G., Altwaijri, Y. A., Baattaiah, B. A., Bruckner, T. A., AlAhmed, R. S., Alkabbani, A. G., Alsukait, R. F., et al. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-22207-3 · Cited by 5
“Numerous reviews have shown that use of very modest incentives can sustain increases in physical activity over time, even once the incentives have ceased [48, 49].”
Design of financial incentive interventions to improve lifestyle behaviors and health outcomes: A systematic review
Miranda, J. J., Pesantes, M. A., Lazo‐Porras, M., Portocarrero, J., Diez‐Canseco, F., Carrillo-Larco, R. M., Bernabé‐Ortiz, A., Trujillo, A. J., & Aldridge, R. W. (2021) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16947.1 · Cited by 6
Comparative effectiveness of interventions on promoting physical activity in older adults: A systematic review and network meta-analysis
Wu, S., Li, G., Shi, B., Ge, H., Chen, S., Zhang, X., & He, Q. (2024) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076241239182 · Cited by 6
“At the same time, the booming of mobile and wireless technology, or information and communication technology render electronic Health (eHealth) and mobile health (mHealth)-based intervention a useful tool for increasing PA. Electronic and mobile Health intervention technologies included modalities like smartphone appl…”
BackgroundInfluential
An evaluation of public initiatives to change behaviours that affect water quality
Grilli, G., & Curtis, J. A. (2022) · Environmental Policy and Governance · doi:10.1002/eet.1999 · Cited by 5
“, 2017), though there is evidence that changed behaviours can persist over time (Maki et al., 2016; Mitchell et al., 2020).”
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Examining Ways to Improve Weight Control Programs’ Population Reach and Representativeness: A Discrete Choice Experiment of Financial Incentives
You, W., Yuan, Y., Boyle, K., Michaud, T. L., Parmeter, C., Seidel, R. W., & Estabrooks, P. A. (2021) · PharmacoEconomics - Open · doi:10.1007/s41669-021-00310-6 · Cited by 5
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“This is a common issue in many urban centers globally, where the design of public spaces does not always encourage physical activity (Mitchell et al., 2020).”
Background
Hourly step recommendations to achieve daily goals for working and older adults
Ang, G., Tan, C. S., Lim, N., Tan, J., Müller‐Riemenschneider, F., Cook, A. R., & Chen, C. (2024) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-024-00537-4 · Cited by 4
“Previous research involving wearables and physical activity has traditionally aggregated steps into daily step counts and analysed the changes across time 12,13,53 – 57 .”
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Chijiki, S., Tanabe, K., Tsukao, A., & Kuno, S. (2023) · Journal of Public Health Research · doi:10.1177/22799036231204331 · Cited by 4
“The study’s purpose was to clarify: (1) whether the average number of steps increased from the preparticipation period to 18 months after the program commencement; and (2) whether such increases were influenced by the financial incentives.”
Background
MoodMover: Development and usability testing of an mHealth physical activity intervention for depression
Tang, Y., Gierc, M. S. H., La, H., Kim, J., Liu, S., Lam, R. W. M., Puterman, E. M., & Faulkner, G. (2025) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076251317756 · Cited by 5
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Less stick more carrot? Increasing the uptake of deposit contract financial incentives for physical activity: A randomized controlled trial
de Buisonjé, D. R., Reijnders, T., Rodrigues, T. C., Santhanam, P., Kowatsch, T., Breeman, L. D., Janssen, V. R., Kraaijenhagen, R. A., Kemps, H., & Evers, A. W. M. (2023) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102532 · Cited by 3
“We used tailoring of step goals because individualized and realistic goals should increase intervention effectiveness (Mitchell et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
The Impact of Monetary Incentives on Delay Discounting Within a Year-Long Physical Activity Intervention
Berardi, V., Phillips, C. B., McEntee, M. L., Stecher, C. D., Todd, M. W., & Adams, M. A. (2024) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kaae009 · Cited by 4
Virtual active sports: identifying main barriers and facilitators for casual fitness fans
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Effectiveness of a digital health and financial incentive intervention to promote physical activity in patients with type 2 diabetes: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial with a nested qualitative study—ACTIVATE trial
Sanders, J. P., Daley, A., Esliger, D., Roalfe, A. K., Colda, A., Turner, J., Hajdu, S., Potter, A., Humayun, M. A., Spiliotis, I., et al. (2024) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-024-08513-y · Cited by 2
“This value of reward is based on previous research which has suggested that modest incentives of (approximately £1 a day) can increase physical activity for interventions in the short and long term [37].”
Influential
Ongoing incentives' 36-month effect on physical activity in a Japanese insurance-based health-promotion program
Kanai, M., Onozato, N., Fujisawa, Y., Hamatani, T., Tateyama, K., Miki, T., Toda, T., Sugawara, T., & Hagiwara, Y. (2025) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2025.108327 · Cited by 3
Effectiveness of Financial Incentives for Health Behavior Change: A Narrative Review and Analysis
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A Pilot Study for Testing the Effectiveness and Cost-Efficiency of Lottery Incentive in mHealth App that Promotes Walking
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“55 Such differences in cost indicate that lottery incentives are a cost-efficient strategy suitable for mHealth, the goal of which is to provide effective intervention to multiple users at a low cost.”
Background
Promoting exercise behavior with monetary and social incentives: An empirical study based on an online fitness program
Zhang, Z., Zhang, J., Zhang, J., & Zhang, J. (2022) · JUSTC · doi:10.52396/justc-2022-0062 · Cited by 3
Loss-Framed Adaptive Microcontingency Management for Preventing Prolonged Sedentariness: Development and Feasibility Study
Choi, W., & Lee, U. (2022) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/41660 · Cited by 3
“For example, socioeconomic status probably contributes to incentive effectiveness [30,31].”
Influential
What moves truck drivers? A person-centered perspective on workplace physical activity promotion
Gawlik, A., Haberstock, S., Beckert, J., & Zepp, C. (2024) · International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/10803548.2024.2315898 · Cited by 3
“Providing financial resources might thus represent a door-way to engagement in PA. Generally, there is a rising interest in financial incentives for PA, and it has been shown that they can sustainably increase PA levels, even after the incentives are removed [64].”
Background
Effect of Group Contingency Type on Walking: Comparisons of Effectiveness and Cost Efficiency
Kim, H., Lee, C., Lee, S., & Chung, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655663 · Cited by 5
“It Goes Hand in Hand with Us Trying to Get More Kids to Play” Stakeholder Experiences in a Sport and Active Recreation Voucher Program
Foley, B. C., Turner, N., Owen, K., Cushway, D., Nguyen, J., & Reece, L. J. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20054081 · Cited by 3
“Most financial incentives have been studied among adult populations, finding that even short-term financial incentives can lead to long-term increases in physical activity [20].”
Background
An mHealth Intervention With Financial Incentives to Promote Smoking Cessation and Physical Activity Among Black Adults: Protocol for a Feasibility Randomized Controlled Trial
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“In addition to evidence-based tobacco cessation treatment [66], HealthyCells will incentivize daily smoking abstinence, while an enhanced version of the intervention, HealthyCells+, will also include incentives for meeting physical activity goals [36,67].”
Promoting healthy behaviour with financial incentives: three challenges and solutions for large scale implementation
Lipman, S. A., de Buisonjé, D. R., & van der Swaluw, K. (2026) · The European Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1007/s10198-025-01893-1 · Cited by 3
“…reviews and meta-analytic studies, for example, show that financial incentives may be a prom - ising intervention for promoting healthier diets in adults [4–6] and children [7, 8], encouraging smoking cessation [9], particularly during pregnancy [10], and to stimulate physical activity [4, 11, 12].”
Evaluating an Incentive-Based mHealth App for Physical Activity Promotion Using the Obesity-Related Behavioral Intervention Trial Model: Small Cohort Study
Salmani, B., Hiemstra, M. S., Harry Prapavessis, A., Vanderloo, L. M., & Mitchell, M. (2026) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/85484 · Cited by 3
“For example, in a review of RCTs examining PA incentives, Mitchell et al [14] found that FI, worth on average about US $1.50 per day, produced short-term (ie, 6 mo), long-term (ie, ≥6 mo), and follow-up (ie, after incentive withdrawal) effects.”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Small Monetary Incentives Lead to Greater Adherence in a Weight Loss Program
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Free bus fares, bus use and physical activity: An exploratory cross‐sectional study
Sharman, M. J., Stanesby, O., Jose, K., Greaves, S. P., & Cleland, V. J. (2024) · Health Promotion Journal of Australia · doi:10.1002/hpja.881 · Cited by 2
Cadence-Based Pedometer App With Financial Incentives to Enhance Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity: Development and Single-Arm Feasibility Study
Hayashi, K., Imai, H., Oikawa, I., Ishihara, Y., Wakuda, H., Miura, I., Uenohara, S., Kuwae, A., Kai, M., Furuya, K., et al. (2024) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/56376 · Cited by 4
“Furthermore, several studies have investigated the effectiveness of different financial structures, such as gain frame incentives, loss frame incentives, and lottery incentives [14].”
Background
One Size Does Not Fit All: Financial Incentives Needed to Change Physical Exercise Levels for Different Groups
Longo, A., Mitchell, E., Markandya, A., & Galarraga, I. (2021) · Medical Decision Making · doi:10.1177/0272989x211011606 · Cited by 2
Effects of Bluetooth-Enabled Desk Ellipticals on Office Work Performance: Rationale, Design, and Protocol for a Randomized Trial With Overweight and Obese Adults
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A behavioral science framework to address latent demand in mental healthcare
Rondina, R., Quan, C., Duke, K. E., & Soman, D. (2022) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01782-7 · Cited by 1
Cost-effectiveness of incentives for physical activity in coronary heart disease in Germany: pre-trial health economic model of a complex intervention following the new MRC framework
Mohebbi, D., Ogurtsova, K., Dyczmons, J., Dintsios, M., Kairies‐Schwarz, N., Jung, C., & Icks, A. (2024) · BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine · doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2024-001896 · Cited by 1
“39 While the monetary incentive group returned to baseline PA after the 24-week intervention (as the financial contributions were not paid any longer), the social incentive group was assumed to achieve the mean PA of the previous intervention weeks.”
Background
Understanding the “how” and “why”: A mixed methods process evaluation for the PRO-HIIT intervention
Liu, Y., Barker, A. R., Li, M., Adlam, A., Duncombe, S. L., Agbaje, A. O., Gu, Y., Zhou, H., & Williams, C. A. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0352772 · Cited by 1
“The teachers believed that incentives provide only short-term motivation and concerned about relying on extrinsic rewards to influence students’ motivation for PA participation, an proposition similar to that of Mitchell et al. [42].”
Are cash incentives always king? A randomized controlled trial evaluating hedonic versus cash incentives (TEH-C)
Finkelstein, E. A., Chow, M. T. N., & Gandhi, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1354814 · Cited by 1
“As shown in several studies, if the incentives are large enough, they will induce greater levels of activity (6–10).”
Background
Relationship between participation in projects of incentives to promote walking and healthy aging among the older population: A four-year longitudinal study
Iizuka, G., Tsuji, T., Ide, K., & Kondo, K. (2024) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2024.108125 · Cited by 1
Mechanism Design for Personalized Policy: A Field Experiment Incentivizing Exercise
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“Second, evidence identifies a realistic daily goal as a key component of effective physical activity incentives (Mitchell et al., 2020), as it may improve the perfor-2 For a given net cost function, the cost-minimizing step target and linear-after-step-target contracts pay the same amount to…”
Boosting Physical Activity Among Individuals With Low Engagement Through Double-Point Incentives in a Community-Based mHealth Intervention: Retrospective Observational Study
Joo, J., Lee, M., Yoon, J., Cho, H., Warrier, G., Thrul, J., & Cho, J. (2025) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/66227 · Cited by 1
Can We Trust Green Apps? Mapping out 14 Trustworthiness Indicators
Lawson, B. T., Coulentianos, M. J., & Mitchell, O. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17146444 · Cited by 1
Association Between Sociodemographic and Lifestyle Factors and Type 2 Diabetes Risk Scores in a Large Working Population: A Comparative Study Between the Commerce and Industry Sectors
Vicioso, M. P. F.-F., Sbert, P. R., Ramírez‐Manent, J. I., López‐González, Á. A., Fernández, J. L. D. B., & Herrero, M. T. V. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17152420 · Cited by 5
Physical activity adherence: Worldwide trends, barriers and facilitators and tools to improve it
Harkin, K., Pascal, B. M., Irvine, S., Tangalakis, K., & Apostolopoulos, V. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-89843-0.00015-5 · Cited by 1

Authors: Mitchell, M. S., Orstad, S. L., Biswas, A., Oh, P. I., Jay, M., Pakosh, M. T., & Faulkner, G.
Affiliations: Western University (CA)
New York University (US)
Institute for Work & Health (CA)
University Health Network (CA)
University of British Columbia (CA)
Corresponding author: Mitchell, Marc S
ORCID: Mitchell, Marc S
Orstad, Stephanie L
Biswas, Aviroop
Oh, Paul I
Jay, Melanie
Pakosh, Maureen T
Faulkner, Guy
Venue: British Journal of Sports Medicine
Publisher: BMJ
Published: 2019-05-15
Volume: 54
Issue: 21
Pages: 1259-1268
ISSN: 0306-3674 (ISSN-L)
1473-0480
DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2019-100633
OpenAlex: W2945344227
Semantic Scholar: bfe04d845af60ca550cb3e4a4a1c234ec34621b8
Cited by: 143
References: 72
Citations by year: 2026: 6 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 2
FWCI: 2.16
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: British Journal of Sports Medicine (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
Funders: Canadian Institutes of Health Research
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Mobile Health and mHealth Applications
Keywords: financial incentives, physical activity promotion, step count, adults, sustained physical activity, health behavior change, wearable activity trackers
MeSH terms: Fitness Trackers, Adult, Health Promotion, Humans, Motivation, Time Factors, Token Economy, Health Behavior, Exercise

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Financial incentives for physical activity in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis

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