Sex matters: secular and geographical trends in sex differences in coronary heart disease mortality
Open accessAbstract
Objective: To examine secular trends and geographical variations in sex differences in mortality from coronary heart disease and investigate how these relate to distributions in risk factors. Design: National and international data were used to examine secular trends and geographical variations in sex differences in mortality from coronary heart disease and risk factors. Setting: England and Wales, 1921-98; Australia, France, Japan, Sweden, and the United States, 1947-97; 50 countries, 1992-6. Data sources: Office for National Statistics, World Health Organization, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Results: The 20th century epidemic of coronary heart disease affected only men in most industrialised countries and had a very rapid onset in England and Wales, which has been examined in detail. If this male only epidemic had not occurred there would have been 1.2 million fewer deaths from coronary heart disease in men in England and Wales over the past 50 years. Secular trends in mean per capita fat consumption show a similar pattern to secular trends in coronary heart disease mortality in men. Fat consumption is positively correlated with coronary heart disease mortality in men ( r s =0.79; 95% confidence interval 0.70 to 0.86) and inversely associated with coronary heart disease mortality in women (—0.30; —0.49 to —0.08) over this time. Although sex ratios for mortality from coronary heart disease show a clear period effect, those for lung cancer show a cohort effect. Sex ratios for stroke mortality were constant and close to unity for the entire period. Geographical variations in the sex ratio for coronary heart disease were associated with mean per capita fat consumption (0.64; 0.44 to 0.78) but were not associated with the sex ratio for smoking. Conclusion: Sex differences are largely the result of environmental factors and hence not inevitable. Understanding the factors that determine sex differences has important implications for public health, particularly for countries and parts of countries where the death rates for coronary heart disease are currently increasing. What is already known on this topic: Mortality for coronary heart disease is greater in men than women in most industrialised countries The most widely accepted explanation for this difference is that women are protected by oestrogen What this study adds: The sex difference in mortality from coronary heart disease varies over time and between countries in a way that cannot be explained by endogenous oestrogen These trends indicate that sex differences in mortality from coronary heart disease are driven primarily by environmental factors Sex differences in coronary heart disease are not inevitable Understanding more about the factors that cause the sex differences in mortality from coronary heart disease has important public health implications
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Sex differences in dietary fat intake, rather than excess smoking in men, may be responsible for the difference.
“Sex differences in dietary fat intake (rather than excess smoking in men) may be responsible.81”
From European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice (version 2012) (2012) · cites this paper as [81]
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- Authors
- Lawlor, D. A., Ebrahim, S., & Smith, G. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Lawlor, D A
- Venue
- BMJ
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2001-09-08
- Volume
- 323
- Issue
- 7312
- Pages
- 541-545
- ISSN
- 0007-1447 (ISSN-L)
- 0959-8138
- 1468-5833
- PMC
- PMC48158
- OpenAlex
- W2157634665
- Cited by
- 213
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 17.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.bmj.com/company/legal-information/terms-conditions/legal-information/tdm-licencepolicy (tdm)
- Locations
- BMJ (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Health and Risk Factors
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Healthcare Systems and Public Health
- Keywords
- sex differences, coronary heart disease mortality, secular trends, regional variation, sex ratio, dietary fat intake, dietary fat, environmental determinants of health, estrogen, smoking, lung cancer mortality, stroke mortality, cohort effects, period effects, England and Wales, cross-national comparison, public health policy, sex differences in risk factors, women's health, cardiovascular disease prevention
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Coronary Disease, Dietary Fats, Europe, Female, Humans, Japan, Male, Middle Aged, Regression Analysis, Risk Factors, United States, Sex Distribution
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