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Combining modifiable risk factors and risk of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Objective: To systematically review the literature relating to the impact of multiple co-occurring modifiable risk factors for cognitive decline and dementia. Design: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature relating to the impact of co-occurring key risk factors for incident cognitive decline and dementia. All abstracts and full text were screened independently by two reviewers and each article assessed for bias using a standard checklist. A fixed effects meta-analysis was undertaken. Data sources: Databases Medline, Embase and PsycINFO were searched from 1999 to 2017. Eligibility criteria: For inclusion articles were required to report longitudinal data from participants free of cognitive decline at baseline, with formal assessment of cognitive function or dementia during follow-up, and an aim to examine the impact of additive or clustered comorbid risk factor burden in with two or more core modifiable risk factors. Results: Seventy-nine full-text articles were examined. Twenty-two articles (18 studies) were included reporting data on >40 000 participants. Included studies consistently reported an increased risk associated with greater numbers of intraindividual risk factors or unhealthy behaviours and the opposite for healthy or protective behaviours. A meta-analysis of studies with dementia outcomes resulted in a pooled relative risk for dementia of 1.20 (95% CI 1.04 to 1.39) for one risk factor, 1.65 (95% CI 1.40 to 1.94) for two and 2.21 (95% CI 1.78 to 2.73) for three or more, relative to no risk factors. Limitations include dependence on published results and variations in study outcome, cognitive assessment, length of follow-up and definition of risk factor exposure. Conclusions: The strength of the reported associations, the consistency across studies and the suggestion of a dose response supports a need to keep modifiable risk factor exposure to a minimum and to avoid exposure to additional modifiable risks. Further research is needed to establish whether particular combinations of risk factors confer greater risk than others. PROSPERO registration number: 42016052914.
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“Increasing evidence also points to air pollution as an emerging risk factor for dementia, heart and cardiovascular disease and lung cancer.1,14”
From Common risk factors for major noncommunicable disease, a systematic overview of reviews and commentary: the implied potential for targeted risk reduction (2019) · cites this paper as [14]
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“Using data collected from the National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center (NACC) data set, we conducted a latent class analysis (LCA) with CVRFs in cognitively normal elderly individuals to identify distinct groups of CVRFs.”
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Ibrahim, A., Ludin, A. F. M., Singh, D. K. A., Rajab, N. F., & Shahar, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1077078 · Cited by 18
Shimada, H., Doi, T., Tsutsumimoto, K., Makino, K., Harada, K., Tomida, K., & Arai, H. (2024) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-231420 · Cited by 18
Effectiveness of eHealth Interventions Targeting Employee Health Behaviors: Systematic Review
Sevic, A., Hashemi, N. S. P., Thørrisen, M. M., Strømstad, K., Skarpaas, L. S., Storm, M., & Brønnick, K. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/38307 · Cited by 19
“Health behaviors such as smoking, alcohol use, poor diet, and physical inactivity may considerably increase one’s risk of NCDs [6-10].”
Boreu, Q. F., Guàrdia-Sancho, A., Santos, J. M., Poch, P. R., Ginesta, J. P., Puig-Ribera, A. M., & Muñoz-Padros, J. (2019) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2019.1676709 · Cited by 17
“…that cognitive impairment contributes to a worsening of CVR in young people with SMD, whereas in people without SMD, evidence shows that exposure to a greater number of cardiovascular risk factors is related to an increased risk in the future of cognitive decline or dementia (Peters et al., 2019).”
BackgroundAndrews, M., Cheema, B. S., & Siette, J. (2024) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2024.105535 · Cited by 20
Foote, I. F., Jacobs, B. M., Mathlin, G., Watson, C. J., Bothongo, P. L., Waters, S., Dobson, R., Noyce, A. J., Bhui, K. S., Korszun, A., et al. (2022) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.02.016 · Cited by 16
Shin, W.-Y., Kang, E. S., Oh, Y. H., Sha, M., Xia, Q., Jeong, S., & Cho, Y. (2025) · BMC Gastroenterology · doi:10.1186/s12876-025-03814-1 · Cited by 16
“Previous studies suggest that apparent associations between metabolic factors and dementia risk may be due to reverse causation bias, with prodromal dementia causing weight loss, lower blood pressure, and changes in serum lipid levels years before diagnosis [41, 42].”
Harrison, F., Mortby, M. E., Mather, K. A., Sachdev, P. S., & Brodaty, H. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1002/dad2.12505 · Cited by 15
“62 Second, within the dementia field, apathy is not established as an independent risk factor 1 and has not been considered to date in risk reductionefforts,suchasmultidomaininterventions.”
BackgroundLobo, E., Gracia‐García, P., Lobo, A., Saz, P., & De‐la‐Cámara, C. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18137092 · Cited by 15
Wang, M., Fan, C., Han, Y., Wang, Y., Cai, H., Zhong, W., Yang, X., Wang, Z., Wang, H., & Han, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1529969 · Cited by 16
Rosenich, E., Bransby, L., Yassi, N., Fripp, J., Laws, S. M., Martins, R. N., Fowler, C. J., Rainey‐Smith, S. R., Rowe, C. C., Masters, C. L., et al. (2022) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000200118 · Cited by 13
“Epidemiologic studies have identified risk factors for dementia, although the mechanisms of these are incompletely understood.(5) For example, physiologic characteristics such as elevated blood pressure and cholesterol levels, obesity, and diabetes,(6,7) as well as behavioral characteristics such as smoking(8) and low…”
BackgroundVishwanath, S., Hopper, I., Chowdhury, E., Wolfe, R. S., Freak‐Poli, R., Reid, C. M., Tonkin, A. M., Murray, A. M., Shah, R. C., Chong, T. T. ‐., et al. (2023) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000535284 · Cited by 15
Rockwood, K. J., Andrew, M. K., Aubertin‐Leheudre, M., Belleville, S., Bherer, L., Bowles, S. K., Kehler, D. S., Lim, A. S. P., Middleton, L. E., Phillips, N. A., et al. (2020) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Translational Research & Clinical Interventions · doi:10.1002/trc2.12083 · Cited by 17
Self-citationResting heart rate and cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies
Kim, H.-B., Jung, Y. H., & Han, H. J. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Neurology · doi:10.3988/jcn.2022.18.6.619 · Cited by 14
Associations between data-driven lifestyle profiles and cognitive function in the AusDiab study
Dingle, S. E., Bowe, S. J., Bujtor, M., Milte, C. M., Daly, R. M., Anstey, K. J., Shaw, J. E., & Torres, S. J. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14379-z · Cited by 12
Self-citationNguyen, H., Phan, H., Terry, D. R., Doherty, K., & McInerney, F. (2021) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2021.1884843 · Cited by 15
Probing the Pre-diagnostic Phase of Parkinson's Disease in Population-Based Studies
Dommershuijsen, L. J., Boon, A. J. W., & Ikram, M. K. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2021.702502 · Cited by 13
“A recent meta-analysis, for instance, has illustrated a dose-response relationship between the number of modifiable risk factors and the risk of dementia (73).”
BackgroundBrain, J., Tully, P. J., Turnbull, D. A., Tang, E. Y. H., Greene, L., Beach, S., Siervo, M., & Stephan, B. C. M. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0271611 · Cited by 14
“Key non-modifiable factors including age [18, 19], gender [20, 21], genetics [22], and ethnicity [23, 24] may also modify the association between cardiovascular disease and risk of dementia.”
BackgroundHow an Intergenerational Book Club Can Prevent Cognitive Decline in Older Adults: A Pilot Study
Plummer, J., Nguyen, K., Everly, J., Kiesow, A., Leith, K. H., Aging, C. O. G. S. I., & Neils-Strunjas, J. (2023) · Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1177/23337214221150061 · Cited by 15
“blood pressure, midlife high cholesterol, diabetes, depression, low social engagement, and low cognitive engagement (Lincoln, 2014; Peters et al., 2019; Prince et al., 2014); many of these risk factors may be prevented by a healthy, active lifestyle (Crous-Bou et al.”
BackgroundModern aspects of diagnosis and treatment of cognitive impairments (literature review)
Борисовна, Л. А., Zakharov, V. V., & Васильевна, В. Н. (2023) · Neurology neuropsychiatry Psychosomatics · doi:10.14412/2074-2711-2023-1-83-89 · Cited by 13
Risk of dementia in adults with cerebral palsy: a matched cohort study using general practice data
Smith, K. J., Peterson, M. D., Victor, C. R., & Ryan, J. M. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042652 · Cited by 13
Xu, C. D., Padilla, V., Lozano, S., Gamez, D., Su, B., Wang, X., Maestre, G. E., & Wang, K. (2023) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes14071405 · Cited by 13
“Behaviors and chronic diseases that increase the risk for dementia include smoking, a poor diet, a sedentary lifestyle, hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, high BMI, depression, anxiety, and low cognitive engagement [2,3].”
BackgroundData‐driven lifestyle patterns and risk of dementia in older Australian women
Dingle, S. E., Bowe, S. J., Bujtor, M., Milte, C. M., Daly, R. M., Byles, J., Cavenagh, D., & Torres, S. J. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13467 · Cited by 11
“3 18–24 A previous study examined the clustering of diet, physical activity, smoking, alcohol consumption, social interaction, and church attendance, using the person-centered approach of latent class analysis (LCA) and subsequent associations with dementia risk in 2491 healthy US adults aged ≥ 65…”
MethodThalamocortical Functional Connectivity in Patients With White Matter Hyperintensities
Chen, C., Wang, X., Cao, S., Zhang, J., Wang, Z., Pan, W. H., Yang, J., Tian, Y., Qiu, B., Wei, Q., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.632237 · Cited by 12
Lower cortical thickness and increased brain aging in adults with cocaine use disorder
Schinz, D., Schmitz‐Koep, B., Tahedl, M., Teckenberg, T., Schultz, V., Schulz, J., Zimmer, C., Sorg, C., Gaser, C., & Hedderich, D. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1266770 · Cited by 12
Du, X. L., Song, L., Schulz, P. E., Xu, H., & Chan, W. (2022) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-220548 · Cited by 11
Amos, J. G., Zheng, L., Eramudugolla, R., Parekh, D., Huque, M. H., Delbaere, K., Lautenschlager, N. T., & Anstey, K. J. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2023-075015 · Cited by 12
Self-citationZhang, Y., Yuan, X., Jiang, Z., Hu, R., Liang, H., Mao, Q., Xiong, Y., Zhang, J., & Liu, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1422000 · Cited by 11
Huque, M. H., Kootar, S., Kiely, K. M., Anderson, C. S., van Boxtel, M. P. J., Brodaty, H., Sachdev, P. S., Carlson, M. C., Fitzpatrick, A. L., Whitmer, R. A., et al. (2024) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-024-03711-6 · Cited by 10
Self-citationNon-invasive brain stimulation in cognitive sciences and Alzheimer's disease
Carrarini, C., Pappalettera, C., Pera, D. L., & Rossini, P. M. (2025) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2024.1500502 · Cited by 10
Abhishek, M. L., Sundarakumar, J. S., Hameed, S. K. S., Teams, S. &. T. S., & Ravindranath, V. (2022) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12715 · Cited by 10
Demnitz, N., Hulme, O. J., Siebner, H. R., Kjær, M., Ebmeier, K. P., Boraxbekk, C., & Gillan, C. M. (2023) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2023.07.023 · Cited by 11
Modifiable dementia risk factors and AT(N) biomarkers: findings from the EPAD cohort
Roccati, E., Bindoff, A. D., Collins, J. M., Eastgate, J., Borchard, J., Alty, J., King, A. E., Vickers, J. C., Carboni, M., & Logan, C. A. (2024) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2024.1346214 · Cited by 11
“Modifiable risk factors tend to co-occur (Griffin et al., 2014; Morris et al., 2016), where clusters typically consist of smoking, excess alcohol consumption, and physical inactivity (Peters et al., 2019).”
BackgroundDesign and overview of the Origins of Alzheimer’s Disease Across the Life course (ORACLE) study
Lamballais, S., Adank, M. C., Hussainali, R. F., Schalekamp–Timmermans, S., Vernooij, M. W., Luik, A. I., Steegers, E. A. P., & Ikram, M. A. (2020) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-020-00696-3 · Cited by 11
Predicting Cognitive Impairment in Cerebrovascular Disease Using Spoken Discourse Production
Roberts, A., Aveni, K., Basque, S. R., Orange, J. B., McLaughlin, P. M., Ramirez, J., Troyer, A. K., Gutierrez, S., Chen, A., Bartha, R., et al. (2021) · Topics in Language Disorders · doi:10.1097/tld.0000000000000242 · Cited by 10
“Although the presence of CVD is an independent risk factor for dementia, the incidence of VCI increases with age, specifically in adults older than 75 years, with the risk of developing VaD doubling every 5.3 years (OʼBrien & Thomas, 2015; Peters et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialFactors associated with dropout in the longitudinal Vogel study of cognitive decline
Haberstumpf, S., Leinweber, J., Lauer, M., Polak, T. T., Deckert, J., & Herrmann, M. J. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15446 · Cited by 12
Metadata
- Authors
- Peters, R., Booth, A., Rockwood, K., Peters, J., D’Este, C., & Anstey, K. J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Sheffield (GB)
- Dalhousie University (CA)
- Australian National University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Peters, Ruth
- Venue
- BMJ Open
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2019-01
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- e022846
- ISSN
- 2044-6055 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6352772
- OpenAlex
- W2912629063
- Cited by
- 255
- References
- 135
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 4.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- BMJ Open (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- NOVA (University of Newcastle Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Funders
- Dalhousie Medical Research Foundation
- Dalhousie University
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Menopause: Health Impacts and Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Health and Risk Factors
- Keywords
- dementia risk, cognitive decline, modifiable risk factors, comorbidities, risk factor burden, protective behavior, unhealthy behaviours, dose-response relationship
- MeSH terms
- Dementia, Humans, Risk Factors, Incidence, Cognitive Dysfunction
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