Estimating the prevalence of discrepancies between study registrations and publications: a systematic review and meta-analyses
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVES: Prospectively registering study plans in a permanent time-stamped and publicly accessible document is becoming more common across disciplines and aims to reduce risk of bias and make risk of bias transparent. Selective reporting persists, however, when researchers deviate from their registered plans without disclosure. This systematic review aimed to estimate the prevalence of undisclosed discrepancies between prospectively registered study plans and their associated publication. We further aimed to identify the research disciplines where these discrepancies have been observed, whether interventions to reduce discrepancies have been conducted, and gaps in the literature. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analyses. DATA SOURCES: Scopus and Web of Knowledge, published up to 15 December 2019. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Articles that included quantitative data about discrepancies between registrations or study protocols and their associated publications. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Each included article was independently coded by two reviewers using a coding form designed for this review (osf.io/728ys). We used random-effects meta-analyses to synthesise the results. RESULTS: We reviewed k=89 articles, which included k=70 that reported on primary outcome discrepancies from n=6314 studies and, k=22 that reported on secondary outcome discrepancies from n=1436 studies. Meta-analyses indicated that between 29% and 37% (95% CI) of studies contained at least one primary outcome discrepancy and between 50% and 75% (95% CI) contained at least one secondary outcome discrepancy. Almost all articles assessed clinical literature, and there was considerable heterogeneity. We identified only one article that attempted to correct discrepancies. CONCLUSIONS: registered study plans and their associated publications. Discrepancies are common and reduce the trustworthiness of medical research. Interventions to reduce discrepancies could prove valuable. REGISTRATION: osf.io/ktmdg. Protocol amendments are listed in online supplemental material A.
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Documentation of a trial's existence and prespecified outcomes in a publicly accessible registry helps increase transparency, decrease unnecessary duplication of research effort, facilitate identification of ongoing trials for prospective participants, and identify and deter selective reporting of study results.
“Documentation of a trial’s existence and prespecified outcomes in a publicly accessible registry helps to increase transparency, decrease unnecessary duplication of research effort, facilitate identification of ongoing trials for prospective participants, and identify and deter selective reporting of study results.63 64”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
Previous reviews have reported frequent discrepancies in primary outcomes defined in registries compared with those specified in protocols of randomised trials.
“as previous reviews have reported frequent discrepancies in the primary outcomes defined in registries compared with those specified in protocols of randomised trials.64”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
A systematic review of five studies found discrepancies in funding sources between protocols/registries and corresponding publications in a median of 45% (range 4-80%) of protocol-publication pairs.
“A systematic review of five studies compared funding sources reported in protocols or trial registries with funding sources declared in the corresponding publications of the results. It found discrepancies in a median of 45% (range 4-80%) of protocol-publication pairs (not exclusively randomised trials).64”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
A systematic review of articles comparing protocols and published reports found discrepancies about eligibility criteria in 25% to 57% of studies.
“For example, a systematic review of articles comparing protocols and published reports (most being clinical trials or systematic reviews) found discrepancies about eligibility criteria in 25% to 57% of studies.64”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
Major discrepancies in the primary outcomes designated in protocols, registries, and regulatory submissions versus final trial publications are common.
“Furthermore, major discrepancies in the primary outcomes designated in protocols, registries, and regulatory submissions versus final trial publications are common.”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
The discrepancies are often not acknowledged in final publications.
“The discrepancies favour the reporting of statistically significant primary outcomes over non-significant ones, and they are often not acknowledged in final publications.64 256 257 258 259”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
The discrepancies favour the reporting of statistically significant primary outcomes over non-significant ones.
“The discrepancies favour the reporting of statistically significant primary outcomes over non-significant ones, and they are often not acknowledged in final publications.64 256 257 258 259”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
A systematic review of articles comparing protocols and published reports (most being clinical trials or systematic reviews) found discrepancies about sample size in 26% to 44% of studies.
“Also, a systematic review of articles comparing protocols and published reports (most being clinical trials or systematic reviews) found discrepancies about sample size in 26% to 44% of studies.64”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
Prespecifying the analysis plans in the protocol reduces the risk of selective reporting of outcomes and results.
“Prespecifying the analysis plans in the protocol reduces the risk of selective reporting of outcomes and results.63 64 81 82”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
A systematic review found that analysis plans described in protocols for up to half of studies (mostly clinical trials and systematic reviews) did not match those reported in publications.
“A systematic review found that analysis plans described in protocols for up to half of studies (mostly clinical trials and systematic reviews) did not match those reported in publications.64”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
Other reviews have found frequent discrepancies between the main analysis population described in protocols compared with in reports of completed trials (or systematic reviews).
“Other reviews have found frequent discrepancies between the main analysis population described in protocols compared with in reports of completed trials (or systematic reviews).64”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
Reviews have found that for more than half of trials the subgroup analyses reported in publications do not match those described in protocols.
“Reviews have found that for more than half of trials the subgroup analyses reported in publications do not match those described in protocols,64 440 raising concerns about post hoc analyses and selective reporting.”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
Comparisons between protocols and trial reports have identified considerable problems with selective reporting of outcomes and trial results.
“Comparisons between protocols and trial reports have identified considerable problems with selective reporting of outcomes and trial results.64 249”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
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Thibault, R. T., Pennington, C. R., & Munafo, M. R. (2023) · Journal of Trial and Error · doi:10.36850/mr6 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Dekkers, O. M., Cevallos, M., Bührer, J., Poncet, A., Rau, S. A., Perneger, T., & Egger, M. (2014) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.09.015 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Selective primary outcome reporting in high-impact journals of anaesthesia and pain
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Selective outcome reporting and sponsorship in randomized controlled trials in IVF and ICSI
Braakhekke, M., Scholten, I., Mol, F., Limpens, J., Mol, B. W., & van der Veen, F. (2017) · Human Reproduction · doi:10.1093/humrep/dex273 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Delgado, A. F., & Delgado, A. F. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09553-y · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Wildt, S., Krag, A. A., & Gluud, L. L. (2011) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000309 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Norris, S. L., Holmer, H. K., Fu, R. F., Ogden, L. A., Viswanathan, M., & Abou-Setta, A. M. (2014) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.1113 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Pre-analysis Plans: A StocktakingPreprint
Ofosu, G. K., & Posner, D. (2019) · doi:10.31222/osf.io/e4pum · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Aggarwal, R., & Oremus, M. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2018.10.010 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
A Comparison of Subgroup Analyses in Grant Applications and Publications
Boonacker, C. W., Hoes, A. W., van Liere-Visser, K., Schilder, A. G., & Rovers, M. M. (2011) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwr075 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Discrepancies Between Prespecified and Reported Outcomes
Slade, E. T., Drysdale, H., Goldacre, B. M., & on behalf of the COMPare Team (2015) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/l15-0614 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Krstičević, M., Saric, D., Šarić, F., Slapnicar, E., Borić, K., Došenović, S., Kadić, A. J., Kegalj, M. J., & Puljak, L. (2019) · Journal of Comparative Effectiveness Research · doi:10.2217/cer-2019-0068 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The heart of the matter: Outcome reporting bias and registration status in cardio-thoracic surgery
Wiebe, J. E., Detten, G., Scheckel, C., Gearhart, D., Wheeler, D., Sanders, D., & Vassar, M. B. (2016) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.11.098 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Shepshelovich, D., Yelin, D., Gafter-Gvili, A., Goldman, S., Avni, T., & Yahav, D. (2018) · Clinical Microbiology and Infection · doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2018.02.010 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Registration Practices of Randomized Clinical Trials in Rhinosinusitis
Ross, A., George, D., Wayant, C., Hamilton, T., & Vassar, M. B. (2019) · JAMA Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery · doi:10.1001/jamaoto.2019.0145 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Jones, C. W., Adams, A., Misemer, B. S., Weaver, M. A., Schroter, S., Khan, H., Margolis, B., Schriger, D. L., & Platts-Mills, T. F. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-066624 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Publication and outcome reporting of homeopathy trials registered in ClinicalTrials.gov
Thomas, E. T., Clark, J. M., & Glasziou, P. (2016) · Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies · doi:10.1111/fct.12278 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The fate of urological systematic reviews registered in PROSPERO
Khaleel, S. S., Cleveland, B. E., Kalapara, A. A., Sathianathen, N. J., Balaji, P., & Dahm, P. (2019) · World Journal of Urology · doi:10.1007/s00345-019-03032-x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Rate of asthma trial outcomes reporting on ClinicalTrials.gov and in the published literature
Stockmann, C. R., Ross, J. S., Sherwin, C. M. T., Reilly, C. A., McDowell, B., Fassl, B. A., Nkoy, F. L., Maloney, C. G., & Spigarelli, M. G. (2014) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2014.09.019 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Jurić, D., Bolić, A., Pranić, S. M., & Marušić, A. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2019.10.002 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Discrepancies in the Registries of Diet vs Drug Trials
Ludwig, D. S., Ebbeling, C. B., & Heymsfield, S. B. (2019) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.15360 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Wandalkar, P. P., Gandhe, P., Pai, A., Limaye, M. V., Chauthankar, S., Gogtay, N. J., & Thatte, U. M. (2017) · Perspectives in Clinical Research · doi:10.4103/2229-3485.215978 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Trial Registration and Outcome Reporting in Child and Pediatric Psychology: A Systematic Review
Hildenbrand, A. K., Conour, C. N., Straus, J. A., Moufarrej, S., & Palermo, T. M. (2019) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsz054 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Inconsistent Reporting Between Meta-analysis Protocol and Publication – A Cross-Sectional Study
Delgado, A. F., & Delgado, A. F. (2017) · Anticancer Research · doi:10.21873/anticanres.11928 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Measuring transparency in the social sciences: political science and international relations
Scoggins, B., & Robertson, M. P. (2024) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.240313 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
White, V. A., Walker, K. F., & Thornton, J. (2019) · European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2019.02.031 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Discrepancies Between Prespecified and Reported Outcomes
Editors, T. (2015) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/l15-0615 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
SPIRIT 2025 statement: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials
Chan, A.-W., Boutron, I., Hopewell, S., Moher, D., Schulz, K. F., Collins, G. S., Tunn, R., Aggarwal, R., Berkwits, M., Berlin, J. A., et al. (2025) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2024-081477 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
CONSORT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for reporting randomised trials
Hopewell, S., Chan, A.-W., Collins, G. S., Hróbjartsson, A., Moher, D., Schulz, K. F., Tunn, R., Aggarwal, R., Berkwits, M., Berlin, J. A., et al. (2025) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2024-081124 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials
Hróbjartsson, A., Boutron, I., Hopewell, S., Moher, D., Schulz, K. F., Collins, G. S., Tunn, R., Aggarwal, R., Berkwits, M., Berlin, J. A., et al. (2025) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2024-081660 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
SPIRIT 2025 statement: updated guideline for protocols of randomized trials
Chan, A., Boutron, I., Hopewell, S., Moher, D., Schulz, K. F., Collins, P. G. S., Tunn, R., Aggarwal, R., Berkwits, M., Berlin, J. A., et al. (2025) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-025-03668-w · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“As a transparent record of the investigators’ original intent, comparison of protocols with reports of completed trials helps to identify selective reporting of results and undisclosed amendments, such as changes to primary outcomes or analyses 52,53 .”
Chan, A., Boutron, I., Hopewell, S., Moher, D., Schulz, K. F., Collins, P. G. S., Tunn, R., Aggarwal, R., Berkwits, M., Berlin, J. A., et al. (2025) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2025.4486 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
When and How to Deviate From a Preregistration
Lakens, D. (2024) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.117094 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Open Science 2.0: Towards a truly collaborative research ecosystem
Thibault, R. T., Amaral, O. B., Argolo, F., Bandrowski, A. E., Davidson, A. R., & Drude, N. I. (2023) · PLOS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3002362 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
SPIRIT 2025 statement: Updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials
Chan, A., Boutron, I., Hopewell, S., Moher, D., Schulz, K. F., Collins, P. G. S., Tunn, R., Aggarwal, R., Berkwits, M., Berlin, J. A., et al. (2025) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004589 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“As a transparent record of the investigators’ original intent, comparison of protocols with reports of completed trials helps to identify selective reporting of results and undisclosed amendments, such as changes to primary outcomes or analyses [52,53].”
Spitzer, L., & Mueller, S. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0281086 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
A guide for social science journal editors on easing into open science
Silverstein, P., Elman, C., Montoya, A. K., McGillivray, B. C., Pennington, C. R., Harrison, C. H., Steltenpohl, C. N., Röer, J. P., Corker, K. S., Charron, L., et al. (2024) · Research Integrity and Peer Review · doi:10.1186/s41073-023-00141-5 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Sandbank, M. P., Bottema‐Beutel, K., Syu, Y.-C., Caldwell, N., Feldman, J. I., & Woynaroski, T. G. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613241231624 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hardwicke, T. E., Thibault, R. T., Clarke, B., Moodie, N., Crüwell, S., Schiavone, S. R., Handcock, S. A., Nghiem, K. A., Mody, F., Eerola, T., et al. (2024) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459241283477 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Preregistration of Psychology Meta-Analyses: A Cross-Sectional Study of Prevalence and Practice
Sandoval‐Lentisco, A., Tortajada, M., López‐Nicolás, R., López-López, J. A., Wagenmakers, E., Sánchez‐Meca, J., & Hardwicke, T. E. (2025) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459241300113 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Supporting study registration to reduce research waste
Purgar, M., Glasziou, P., Klanjšček, T., Nakagawa, S., & Čulina, A. (2024) · Nature Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1038/s41559-024-02433-5 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“61) in favour of statistically significant results, larger effects and effects that support hypotheses that were tested 17,18,22,48–50, 52, Developing and maintaining an efficient preregistration system will be costly.”
Protocol publication rate and comparison between article, registry and protocol in RCTs
Mathieu, S., Bouillon‐Minois, J., Triché, L. R., Coudeyre, E., de Chazeron, I., Finotto, T., Laporte, C., Moisset, X., Samalin, L., Villatte, G., et al. (2025) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-025-02471-y · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Rubin, M. (2025) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-025-05191-4 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Crits-Christoph, P., Gallop, R., Duong, L. A., Zoupou, E., & Gibbons, M. B. C. (2022) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2022.2073289 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hardwicke, T. E., Thibault, R. T., Clarke, B., Moodie, N., Crüwell, S., Schiavone, S. R., Handcock, S. A., Nghiem, K. A., Mody, F., Eerola, T., et al. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/t2zs9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Zhang, J., Bierer, B. E., Spall, H. G. C. V., Liu, Y., Bai, X., Thabane, L., Lip, G. Y. H., Sun, X., Moher, D., & Li, G. (2025) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-025-04328-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This approach to combine these two types of discordance was also used by some previous methodological studies [7, 21].”
Liu, X., Li, W., Zhang, Q., Lei, J., Han, X., Wang, Y., Shen, C., Yu, Z., Li, Y., Shi, L., et al. (2025) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf238 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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“Overall, the studies registered a median [IQR] of 3 [4 – 5] databases and reported using a median [IQR] of 3 [4 – 5] databases in the published article.”
Duan, Y., Deng, Y., Tang, B., Xu, Z., Ye, X., Lu, M., Liu, S., Xiong, L., Zhu, W., Yu, L., et al. (2024) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2023-083213 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Trends in Facial Reanimation Surgery: A Bibliometric Analysis
Gentile, A., Ceccaroni, A., Alderhali, R., Alzaid, M., Rupra, R. S., Fink, B., Daneshi, K., & Khajuria, A. (2025) · Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery Global Open · doi:10.1097/gox.0000000000007138
Poursalehian, M., Sahebi, M., Tajvidi, M., Sabaghian, A., Asgari, A.-M., Tabaie, S. A., & Hoveidaei, A. H. (2026) · Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research · doi:10.1097/corr.0000000000003910
How to Interpret the Results in a Noninferiority Randomized Trial in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
Lévy, V., & Chevret, S. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1200/jco-25-03114
James, N., Umranikar, A., Arain, H., Bulhan, G., Mitchell, S., Salcedo, J. F., Araiza-Rodríguez, J. F., & Arellano, J. A. (2026) · Journal of Aesthetic Medicine · doi:10.3390/jaestheticmed2020009
“…clinical practice with public engagement offers clear benefits in accessibility and education; however, it also situates surgical discourse within systems designed to reward visibility, engagement, and shareability—attributes that do not inherently correlate with methodological strength [13,100].”
InfluentialMosley, A. J., & Roberts, E. R. (2026) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.70458
Luo, C., Chen, N., Jing, Q., Hu, S., Wan, S., Zhang, S., Liu, G., Li, N. D., & Zhao, L.-Y. (2026) · Clinical Oral Investigations · doi:10.1007/s00784-026-06955-z
Bajraktari, R., & Munafo, M. R. (2026) · Journal of Trial and Error · doi:10.36850/b364-4157
Pankiv, E., & Aoyama, K. (2026) · Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d anesthésie · doi:10.1007/s12630-026-03167-7
- Authors
- TARG Meta-Research Group & Collaborators
- Corresponding author
- TARG Meta-Research Group & Collaborators
- Venue
- BMJ Open
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2023-10
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- e076264
- ISSN
- 2044-6055 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC10551944
- OpenAlex
- W4387345483
- Cited by
- 33
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 2.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- BMJ Open (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (publishedVersion)
- Explore Bristol Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research (Postdoctoral Fellowship)
- Medical Research Council
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit (MC_UU_00011/7)
- Fonds de Recherche du Québec - Santé (Postdoctoral fellowship)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Academic Publishing and Open Access
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Pharmaceutical industry and healthcare
- Keywords
- selective reporting, research registration, prevalence, risk of bias, clinical research, protocol modification
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Prospective Studies, Bias, Prevalence, Publication Bias, Biomedical Research
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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