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The impact of overtime and long work hours on occupational injuries and illnesses: new evidence from the United States
Open accessAbstract
Aims: To analyse the impact of overtime and extended working hours on the risk of occupational injuries and illnesses among a nationally representative sample of working adults from the United States. Methods: Responses from 10 793 Americans participating in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) were used to evaluate workers’ job histories, work schedules, and occurrence of occupational injury and illness between 1987 and 2000. A total of 110 236 job records were analysed, encompassing 89 729 person-years of accumulated working time. Aggregated incidence rates in each of five exposure categories were calculated for each NLSY survey period. Multivariate analytical techniques were used to estimate the relative risk of long working hours per day, extended hours per week, long commute times, and overtime schedules on reporting a work related injury or illness, after adjusting for age, gender, occupation, industry, and region. Results: After adjusting for those factors, working in jobs with overtime schedules was associated with a 61% higher injury hazard rate compared to jobs without overtime. Working at least 12 hours per day was associated with a 37% increased hazard rate and working at least 60 hours per week was associated with a 23% increased hazard rate. A strong dose-response effect was observed, with the injury rate (per 100 accumulated worker-years in a particular schedule) increasing in correspondence to the number of hours per day (or per week) in the workers’ customary schedule. Conclusions: Results suggest that job schedules with long working hours are not more risky merely because they are concentrated in inherently hazardous industries or occupations, or because people working long hours spend more total time “at risk” for a work injury. Strategies to prevent work injuries should consider changes in scheduling practices, job redesign, and health protection programmes for people working in jobs involving overtime and extended hours.
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“Whereas many studies indicated that working long hours is associated with fatigue, a higher risk of injury, and (psycho)somatic health complaints (5, 7-9)”
From A diary study to open up the black box of overtime work among university faculty members (2008) · cites this paper as [7]
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“Additional details on the methods we used in this study have been published elsewhere.”
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“Dembe et al. (2005) report an increase in occurrence of occupational accidents by 23% among employees working at least 60 hours per week.”
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“and accidents both in and out of the workplace (15, 16).”
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“Limited recovery in turn reduces the ability for sustained performance at a high cognitive level and increases the likelihood of mistakes, accidents, and injuries (e.g., Dembe, Erickson, Delbos, and Banks 2005; Folkard and Lombardi 2006).”
Prevalence and injury patterns among electronic waste workers in the informal sector in Nigeria
Ohajinwa, C., van Bodegom, P. V., Vijver, M., Olumide, A., Osibanjo, O., & Peijnenburg, W. (2017) · Injury Prevention · doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2016-042265 · Cited by 41
McCall, B. P., Horwitz, I. B., & Carr, B. S. (2007) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.02.004 · Cited by 35
Workplace Accidents Among Nepali Male Workers in the Middle East and Malaysia: A Qualitative Study
Adhikary, P., Keen, S., & van Teijlingen, E. R. (2018) · Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health · doi:10.1007/s10903-018-0801-y · Cited by 40
“, long working hours, language problems, lack of safety training) and health problems including accidents at work are well documented in migrants working in unskilled jobs [11, 15, 17, 24, 36, 37].”
BackgroundSleep quality and the risk of work injury: a Swiss case–control study
Uehli, K., Miedinger, D., Bingisser, R., Dürr, S., Holsboer-trachsler, E., Maier, S., Mehta, A., Müller, R., Schindler, C., Zogg, S., et al. (2014) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.12146 · Cited by 40
“ated with reduced sleep quality and with an increased risk of work injury (Dembe et al., 2005; Metlaine et al., 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Janus Face of the 'New Ways of Work': Rise, Risks and Regulation of Nomadic WorkPreprint
Popma, J. R. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2376713 · Cited by 41
Wirtz, A., Lombardi, D. A., Willetts, J. L., Folkard, S., & Christiani, D. C. (2012) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.3295 · Cited by 42
“While previous studies have shown an increase in injury risk across weekly working hours (9, 10, 42), this study is the first to use a nationally representative sample to investigate gender differences in the association between injury risk and working hours in the US.”
ResultHaider, H., Sadiq, R., & Tesfamariam, S. (2016) · doi:10.1061/(asce)wr.1943-5452.0000552 · Cited by 40
“According to Dembe et al. (2005), evidence in United Sates revealed that overtime and extended work schedules affect the health and wellbeing of workers.”
BackgroundSafe limits on work hours for the nursing profession: a rapid evidence review
Scott-Marshall, H. K. (2024) · Frontiers in Global Women s Health · doi:10.3389/fgwh.2024.1455422 · Cited by 46
“Furthermore, working 12 or more hours per day was increased injury risk by 37%, while working 60 h per week elevated the risk by 23% (143).”
Todolí-Signes, A. (2021) · Transfer - European Review of Labour and Research · doi:10.1177/10242589211035040 · Cited by 39
Kim, S.-J., Kim, Y., Lim, S., Ryoo, J., & Yoon, J. (2019) · Safety and Health at Work · doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2019.08.001 · Cited by 37
“However, specific work environments can disrupt health; such environments entail long working hours [1,2], shift work [3,4], and hazardous chemical exposure [5,6].”
BackgroundThe Association between Long Working Hours and Self-Rated Health
Song, J.-T., Lee, G., Kwon, J.-K., Park, J.-W., Choi, H., & Lim, S.-Y. (2014) · Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1186/2052-4374-26-2 · Cited by 39
“Further, it has been reported to cause an increase in the number of accidents and errors in the workplace [7,8].”
BackgroundThe Use of Wearable Devices in the Workplace - A Systematic Literature Review
Khakurel, J., Pöysä, S., & Porras, J. (2016) · International Conference on Smart Objects and Technologies for Social Good · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-61949-1_30 · Cited by 37
“This can potentially have enormous effect on physical well-being of employee, likelihood of occupational injuries and illness [6].”
BackgroundHaider, H., Sadiq, R., & Tesfamariam, S. (2016) · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.003 · Cited by 37
Commentary: Response—on economic growth, business fluctuations, and health progress
Granados, J. A. T. (2005) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyi207 · Cited by 37
Impact of technostress on work-life balance
Bencsik, A., & Juhász, T. (2023) · Human Technology · doi:10.14254/1795-6889.2023.19-1.4 · Cited by 36
Can working hour reduction save workers
Lee, J., & Lee, Y.-K. (2016) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2016.02.004 · Cited by 36
“Dembe et al. (2005) used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and found that working longer is correlated with higher injury rates.”
MethodDistinguishing between overtime work and long workhours among full-time and part-time workers.
Beckers, D., van der Linden, D., Smulders, P., Kompier, M., Taris, T., & Yperen, N. W. V. (2007) · Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.1062 · Cited by 36
Economic growth and the incidence of occupational injuries in Austria
Barth, A., Winker, R., Ponocny-Seliger, E., & Sögner, L. (2006) · Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift · doi:10.1007/s00508-006-0726-7 · Cited by 36
“Another phenomenon that might occur in downsizing industries is an increase in the workload as a result of understaffing [15], which in turn may result in longer working hours and increased overtime, thus increasing the risk of occupational injuries [4, 22, 23].”
BackgroundSleep Quantity and Quality of Ontario Wildland Firefighters Across a Low-Hazard Fire Season
McGillis, Z., Dorman, S. C., Robertson, A., Larivière, M. A. S., Leduc, C., Eger, T., Oddson, B. E., & Larivière, C. (2017) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000001175 · Cited by 48
López-Arquillos, A., Rubio-Romero, J., Suárez-Cebador, M., & Pardo-Ferreira, M. D. C. (2015) · doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2015.02.005 · Cited by 35
“…example, there are various stressors at the vehicle maintenance worksite, which include the following: (i) a noisy environment (Bejan et al., 2011; Dembe et al., 2005; Sorock et al., 2004); (ii) asbestos (Dotson, 2006; Cohen and Van Orden, 2008; Blake et al., 2008); and (iii) ergonomic conditions…”
BackgroundInfluentialConway, S. H., Pompeii, L. A., Gimeno, D., Follis, J. L., & ROBERTS, R. E. (2017) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwx003 · Cited by 37
Berhe, A., Yemane, D., Gebresilassie, A., Terefe, W., & Ingale, L. T. (2015) · doi:10.4172/2329-6879.1000197 · Cited by 34
“This finding was consistent with findings of other similar studies [9,12,17,25].”
BackgroundResultTaking risks and survival jobs: foreign-born workers and work-related injuries in Australia
Reid, A., Lenguerrand, E., Santos, I., Read, U., Lamontagne, A., Fritschi, L., & Harding, S. (2014) · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2014.07.002 · Cited by 34
Vacation, Collective Restoration, and Mental Health in a Population
Hartig, T., Catalano, R., Ong, M. K., & Syme, S. (2013) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/2156869313497718 · Cited by 34
“Without sufficient time for recovery of the depleted resources, workers may eventually suffer impaired cognitive function, emotional distress, accidents, illness, and other adverse outcomes (e.g., Dembe et al. 2005; Sparks et al. 1997; Van der Hulst 2003; Virtanen et al. 2009).”
BackgroundFatigue and sleep patterns among Canadian wildland firefighters during a 17-day fire line deployment
Jeklin, A. T., Davies, H., Bredin, S. S. D., Hives, B. A., Meanwell, L. E., Perrotta, A. S., & Warburton, D. E. R. (2020) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene · doi:10.1080/15459624.2020.1759809 · Cited by 37
Chronic Disease Risks From Exposure to Long-Hour Work Schedules Over a 32-Year Period
Dembe, A., & Yao, X. I. (2016) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000000810 · Cited by 33
Self-citationAssociations Between Employees’ Work Schedules and the Vocational Consequences of Workplace Injuries
Dembe, A., Delbos, R., Erickson, J. B., & Banks, S. (2007) · Journal of occupational rehabilitation · doi:10.1007/s10926-007-9098-8 · Cited by 33
“Additional details concerning the methodology used in this study have been published elsewhere [ 8 , 9].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationChen, Y., Li, P., & Yang, C. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17093265 · Cited by 33
“They are not only under pressure in all aspects of their work, but also silently endure the increasing overtime and long commute time [38].”
BackgroundMeng, X.-C., Zhai, H.-Y., & Chan, A. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16081411 · Cited by 32
Contextual Determinants of Observed Negative Emotional States in Police–Community Interactions
Makin, D. A., Willits, D. W., Koslicki, W. M., Brooks, R., Dietrich, B. J., & Bailey, R. L. (2018) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854818796059 · Cited by 36
Marucci-Wellman, H. R., Lin, T.-C., Willetts, J. L., Brennan, M. J., & Verma, S. (2014) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2014.301921 · Cited by 32
Bahn, S., & Barratt-Pugh, L. (2012) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2011.11.006 · Cited by 32
Strzemecka, J., Goździewska, M., Skrodziuk, J., Galińska, E., & Lachowski, S. (2019) · Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.26444/aaem/106224 · Cited by 31
Metadata
- Authors
- Dembe, A. E., Erickson, J. B., Delbos, R. G., & Banks, S. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dembe, A E
- ORCID
- Dembe, A E
- Venue
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2005-08-18
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 588-597
- ISSN
- 0007-1072 (ISSN-L)
- 1351-0711
- 1470-7926
- PMC
- PMC1741083
- OpenAlex
- W2111942718
- Cited by
- 788
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 30.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) Network (American Medical Association) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (R01-OH07576)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Workplace Health and Well-being
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Occupational Health and Safety in Workplaces
- Keywords
- overtime, long working hours, occupational injuries, occupational diseases, work schedules, dose-response relationship, injury risk, commuting time, job redesign, occupational injury prevention
- MeSH terms
- Accidents, Occupational, Adult, Epidemiologic Methods, Female, Humans, Male, Occupational Diseases, Time Factors, United States, Work Schedule Tolerance, Wounds and Injuries
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