Mapping in the Wild: Toward Designing to Train Search & Rescue Planning
Open accessAbstract
Search and rescue (SAR), performed to locate and save victims in disaster and other scenarios, primarily involves collaborative sensemaking and planning. To become a SAR responder, students learn to search within and navigate the environment, make sense of situations, and collaboratively plan operations. In this study, we synthesize data from four sources: (1) semi-structured interviews with experienced SAR professionals; (2) online surveys of SAR professionals; (3) analysis of documentation and artifacts from SAR operations on the 2017 hurricanes Harvey and Maria; and (4) first-person experience undertaking SAR training. Drawing on activity theory, we develop an understanding of current SAR sensemaking and planning activities, which help explore unforeseen factors that are relevant to the design of training systems. We derive initial design implications for systems that teach SAR responders to deal with mapping in the outdoors, collecting data, sharing information, and collaboratively planning activities.
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Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
9 of 18 cited sources checked · 4 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
In SAR cooperative work, planning and spatiotemporal skills are critical for success.
“In this complex cooperative work, planning and spatiotemporal skills are crucial to success [12,13], thus, responders constantly train to retain and enhance their knowledge and competence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked- cites [12] 12. Robert Soden and Leysia Palen. 2016. Infrastructure in the Wild: What Mapping in Post-Earthquake Nepal Reveals About Infrastructural Emergence. In Proc. SIGCHI Conf. Human Factors in Comp. Sys. (CHI '16). ACM, 2796-2807. source
The Introduction (page unavailable) says disaster responders rely on contingency plans, skills, and expertise to accomplish their goals. The Analysis and Dependence on Personal and Professional Networks sections describe spatial-data work and collaboration in the Nepal earthquake response. The paper does not establish that planning and spatiotemporal skills are crucial specifically to search-and-rescue success. (LLM, conf=0.77)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [13] 13. Zachary O. Toups, William A. Hamilton, and Sultan A. Alharthi. 2016. Playing at Planning: Game Design Patterns from Disaster Response Practice. In Proc. 2016 An. Symp. Comp.-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY '16). ACM, 362-375. source
- Findingown data
Planning is a primary component of SAR practice, performed by individuals or teams to make decisions and coordinate effort.
“Our analysis shows that a primary component of SAR practice is planning, which is undertaken by individuals or teams to make decisions and synchronize effort [13].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [13] 13. Zachary O. Toups, William A. Hamilton, and Sultan A. Alharthi. 2016. Playing at Planning: Game Design Patterns from Disaster Response Practice. In Proc. 2016 An. Symp. Comp.-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY '16). ACM, 362-375. source
- Premisecitation
Paper maps and other physical artifacts can be augmented with shared digital information to support learning of different mapping and navigation methods.
“Physical artifacts, such as paper maps, can be augmented using shared digital information [6,10], to enable effective learning of different mapping and navigation methods.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked- cites [6] 6. Joel E. Fischer, Stuart Reeves, Tom Rodden, Steve Reece, Sarvapali D. Ramchurn, and David Jones. 2015. Building a Birds Eye View: Collaborative Work in Disaster Response. In Proc.SIGCHI Conf. Human Factors in Comp. Sys. (CHI '15). ACM, 4103-4112. source
In “Uncertainty of resources (2)” (page not specified), the paper proposes augmenting paper maps with projected information. “Considering an Augmented Bird Table” describes linking map annotations to digital information. Neither passage says this enables effective learning of different mapping or navigation methods; the proposed use is disaster-response situation analysis. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [10] 10. Ann Morrison, Antti Oulasvirta, Peter Peltonen, Saija Lemmela, Giulio Jacucci, Gerhard Reitmayr, Jaana Näsänen, and Antti Juustila. 2009. Like Bees Around the Hive: A Comparative Study of a Mobile Augmented Reality Map. In Proc.SIGCHI Conf. Human Factors in Comp. Sys. (CHI '09). ACM, 1889-1898. source
The Interaction In the Wild section (p. 3) describes digital information overlaid on a paper map, and Doing tasks with physical map versus the mobile map (p. 6) reports using that combination to identify locations and plan routes. The paper does not establish that the augmentation enables effective learning of different mapping and navigation methods; it emphasizes collaboration and common ground instead. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
Spray painting buildings is a marking method used to track the SAR operation plan.
“Different methods of the marking system used to keep track of the SAR operation plan: (1) Spray painting buildings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation
Physical and digital artifacts are used interchangeably in SAR mapping.
“Physical and digital artifacts are used interchangeably, thus, seamless transition between these artifacts is needed “we went to Harvey, and some of that stuff [network] was down so we had to go back to the old method of pen and paper ” [P1].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [P1]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
SAR activities are governed by the National Incident Management System's Incident Command System and the local authority having jurisdiction, which shape responder responsibility hierarchy and labor division.
“These activities are governed by rules of the National Incident Management System's Incident Command System (ICS) [15] and the local authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) [3], which guides the hierarchy of responsibility among responders and contributes to how labor is divided.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [15]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [3] 3. AZSARCA. 2018. Arizona Basic Search and Rescue Manual. Online. (2018). https://goo.gl/z5K6n4.
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Traditional training approaches, such as classroom courses and real-life simulated drills, face difficulties in improving disaster response training.
“However, traditional training methods (e.g., real-life simulated drills, classroom courses) present challenges in advancing disaster response training [1].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] 1. Sultan A. Alharthi, Nick LaLone, Ahmed S. Khalaf, Ruth C. Torres, Lennart E. Nacke, Igor Dolgov, and Zachary O. Toups. 2018a. Practical Insights into the Design of Future Disaster Response Training Simulations. In Proc. 15th ISCRAM Conference. 818-830.
- May combine two claims. 5
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 12
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationInformation seeking and sensemaking are essential to SAR; responders use them to collect, filter, and interpret information, build a mental model of the overall information picture, and collaboratively create plans.
“Information seeking and sensemaking are essential parts of SAR [13], through which responders collect, filter, and interpret information to develop a mental model of an overall information picture and collaboratively develop plans.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [13] 13. Zachary O. Toups, William A. Hamilton, and Sultan A. Alharthi. 2016. Playing at Planning: Game Design Patterns from Disaster Response Practice. In Proc. 2016 An. Symp. Comp.-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY '16). ACM, 362-375. source
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationInformation gathered in SAR is communicated through shared maps, which serve as a foundation for collaboration and planning.
“Information collected is communicated through maps [6,12] that are shared, forming the basis of collaboration and planning “we consult the map given to us by Incident Base, which outlines the search plan” [P7].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked- cites [6] 6. Joel E. Fischer, Stuart Reeves, Tom Rodden, Steve Reece, Sarvapali D. Ramchurn, and David Jones. 2015. Building a Birds Eye View: Collaborative Work in Disaster Response. In Proc.SIGCHI Conf. Human Factors in Comp. Sys. (CHI '15). ACM, 4103-4112. source
- cites [12] 12. Robert Soden and Leysia Palen. 2016. Infrastructure in the Wild: What Mapping in Post-Earthquake Nepal Reveals About Infrastructural Emergence. In Proc. SIGCHI Conf. Human Factors in Comp. Sys. (CHI '16). ACM, 2796-2807. source
The Analysis section says maps provide a common picture that enables coordination in disaster response. “Means of Distribution: The Value of Paper Maps” describes shared paper maps guiding relief-planning discussions. The study concerns post-earthquake humanitarian relief in Nepal, however, and does not establish the claim specifically for search and rescue (SAR). Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [P7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAnnotation interfaces such as markers and waypoints help ground information in physical space and support the development of reconnaissance and sensemaking skills.
“Providing annotation interfaces (e.g., markers and waypoints (Figure 4)), help ground information in physical space [2], and support development of reconnaissance and sensemaking skills.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] 2. Sultan A. Alharthi, Ruth C. Torres, Ahmed S. Khalaf, Zachary O. Toups, Igor Dolgov, and Lennart E. Nacke. 2018b. Investigating the Impact of Annotation Interfaces on Player Performance in Distributed Multiplayer Games. In Proc. SIGCHI Conf. Human Factors in Comp. Sys. (CHI '18). ACM, 314:1-314:13. source
The Waypoint Support and Value of Annotating the Gameworld sections describe annotations that mark locations and turn plans into situated actions in a virtual gameworld, supporting the spatial-grounding point. They do not establish grounding in physical space. The Future Work section proposes studying whether annotations improve sensemaking skills; it does not report demonstrated development of those skills or address reconnaissance skills. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenSketch maps are used to establish plans.
“Sketch maps are used to establish plans.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataThe Hurricane Harvey SAR map shows overlay information of potential danger areas.
“(2) The map shows overlay information of potential danger areas.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataCompass and paper maps are used for navigation and orientation.
“Compass and paper maps used for navigation and orientation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataSmart-device digital maps provide live location updates.
“Digital maps on smart devices are used for real-time location updates.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenStandardized GPS waypoints are used in digital maps.
“(2)Standardized GPS waypoints used in digital maps (see Figure1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataA map is annotated with color-coded GPS data representing different levels of performed operations.
“(3) A map annotated with color codded GPS data representing the different levels of performed operations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenFree-hand annotations are observed in the middle of the Hurricane Harvey SAR map.
“The use of free-hand annotations is observed in the middle.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataMaps from Hurricane Harvey SAR operations in Houston are divided into multiple regions representing districts.
“Maps of Houston, Texas from SAR operations during Hurricane Harvey.(1) The map is divided into multiple regions representing different districts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataSAR responders employ various methods for outdoor navigation and various artifacts for planning.
“Responders use a variety of methods for outdoor navigation and use different artifacts for planning (Figures 1, 2, 5) “the backbone to effective search and rescue operations is a good foundation in backcountry navigation””
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIn any planning process, information from different sources is gathered and analyzed to form a strategy for achieving a shared goal.
“During any planning process, information is gathered and analyzed from different sources to establish a strategy that leads to accomplishing a shared goal [4].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] 4. Shideh Dashti, Leysia Palen, Mehdi P Heris, Kenneth M Anderson, T Jennings Anderson, and Scott Anderson. 2014. Supporting disaster reconnaissance with social media data: A design-oriented case study of the 2013 Colorado floods. In Proc. 11th ISCRAM Conference. 632-641.
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisenone givenSAR sensemaking and planning have received little research attention.
“SAR sensemaking and planning are underexplored.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationActivity theory is a conceptual framework that helps frame the sociocultural aspects of SAR.
“To integrate themes across these data types, we draw on activity theory (AT), a conceptual framework organized around the fundamental concept of activity [8], which helps to frame the sociocultural aspects of SAR.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] 8. Victor Kaptelinin and Bonnie A. Nardi. 2006. Acting with Technology: Activity Theory and Interaction Design (Acting with Technology). The MIT Press.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSAR activities include damage and needs reconnaissance, marking key locations, and constructing plans for physical search and rescue operations.
“SAR activities include assessing damage and needs-reconnaissance [4]; marking key locations; and constructing plans for physical search and rescue operations [3].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [4] 4. Shideh Dashti, Leysia Palen, Mehdi P Heris, Kenneth M Anderson, T Jennings Anderson, and Scott Anderson. 2014. Supporting disaster reconnaissance with social media data: A design-oriented case study of the 2013 Colorado floods. In Proc. 11th ISCRAM Conference. 632-641.
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [3] 3. AZSARCA. 2018. Arizona Basic Search and Rescue Manual. Online. (2018). https://goo.gl/z5K6n4.
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenDuring search and rescue work, a map carrying standard GPS waypoint annotations supports joint planning and live plan sharing and tracking.
“A map annotated with standard GPS waypoint markers during SAR operations, which enables collaborative planing of operations and real-time sharing and tracking of plans.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Training simulations that reproduce essential SAR practice components can improve SAR preparedness.
“we develop design implications for future training simulations (e.g., location-aware and mixed reality games [1,10,13]) to support SAR preparedness.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Understanding SAR practice can yield design implications for training systems.
“From this understanding, we develop design implications for future training simulations (e.g., location-aware and mixed reality games [1,10,13]) to support SAR preparedness.”
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Playing at Planning: Game Design Patterns from Disaster Response Practice
Toups Dugas, P. O., Hamilton, W. A., & Alharthi, S. A. (2016) · Proceedings of the 2016 Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/2967934.2968089 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
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“Prior studies contribute rich insight into disaster response practice, providing new ways to improve training and field operations through system design [5,6,9,12,14].”
BackgroundAlharthi, S. A., Torres, R. C., Khalaf, A. S., Toups Dugas, P. O., Dolgov, I., & Nacke, L. E. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3173574.3173888 · Cited by 21 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, markers and waypoints (Figure 4)), help ground information in physical space [2], and support development of reconnaissance and sensemaking skills.”
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Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
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- 10.5555/1196435 · DOI
- U.S. Department of Homeland Security. 2008. National Incident Management System. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC, USA.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Making Maps Available for Play
Dugas, P. O. T., LaLone, N. J., Alharthi, S. A., Sharma, H. N., & Webb, A. M. (2019) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/3336144 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationStute, M., Maaß, M., Schons, T., Kaufhold, M., Reuter, C., & Hollick, M. (2020) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101598 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“rastructure is often unavailable due to physical damage or overload by its users [34]. No network accesses hinders IDR operations such as search-and-rescue missions, which require up-to-date map data [3]. For coordination, point-to-point radios can be used, but their range is typically limited to a single hop and only…”
BackgroundView of Cartography in Video Games: Literature Review and Examples of Specific Solutions
Horbiński, T., & Zagata, K. (2022) · KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information · doi:10.1007/s42489-022-00104-8 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…areas that need to be solved by web maps (Brock et al. 2017): incomplete or incorrect information (Reilly and Inkpen 2004; Reilly et al. 2006), problems of maps for indoor locations (Gu et al. 2009), 3D issues within 2D map interfaces, and the lack of available collaboration (Alharthi et al. 2018).”
BackgroundRemote Communication in Wilderness Search and Rescue
Jones, B., Tang, A., & Neustaedter, C. (2020) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3375190 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Team cognition has been studied extensively in CSCW research [3,5,10,12,24,27,33,38,53], and is the shared knowledge and awareness of team members, work processes, tasks, and the workspace; and the ability to coordinate and act together based on that shared knowledge.”
InfluentialInvestigating the Effects of Individual Cognitive Styles on Collaborative Gameplay
Alharthi, S. A., Raptis, G. E., Katsini, C., Dolgov, I., Nacke, L. E., & Dugas, P. O. T. (2021) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/3445792 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationAn Activity Theory Analysis of Search & Rescue Collective Sensemaking and Planning Practices
Alharthi, S. A., LaLone, N. J., Sharma, H. N., Dolgov, I., & Dugas, P. O. T. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445272 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“, [7, 56, 76, 122, 131]) and motivation to develop new means to enable SAR training and coordination, the research question driving our study is: What are the informational components of SAR practice and how is information recorded and communicated? By addressing our research question, we contribute an in-depth accoun…”
BackgroundSelf-citationHead-Worn Displays for Emergency Medical Services Staff
Schlosser, P. D., Matthews, B., Salisbury, I. S., Sanderson, P. M., & Hayes, S. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445614 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Second, search and rescue operations—the localization and rescue of a missing person—have also been identifed as a subarea of EMS that could beneft from technology support [1, 2, 25].”
BackgroundThe development of individuals’ map-reading skill: what research and theory tell us
Arthurs, L. A., Baumann, S. P., Rice, J. M., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Cartography · doi:10.1080/23729333.2021.1950318 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…al., 2014; San Miguel-Ayanz et al., 2000), conservation efforts (Abell et al., 2008; Ibisch et al., 2016); Lecours, 2017, search and rescue missions (Alharthi et al., 2018; Balaguer et al., 2009; Dijkshoorn & Visser, 2012), military defense operations (Monmonier, 2004; Philander, 2002), and more.”
BackgroundA Vision of Augmented Reality for Urban Search and Rescue
LaLone, N. J., Alharthi, S. A., & Dugas, P. O. T. (2019) · Halfway to the Future Symposium · doi:10.1145/3363384.3363466 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“technologies like radios, paper maps, handheld GPS maps, and paper documentation [1, 9, 27].”
BackgroundSelf-citationJones, B., Tang, A., & Neustaedter, C. (2022) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3512960 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“[1] revealed that much of SAR planning and discussion is centred around maps, as they provide an effective means to record key information about the search and communicate it with team members.”
BackgroundCoMap: A Collaborative 3D Sketch Mapping Game to Engage Spatial Communication in Search and Rescue
Xiao, T., Zhong, S., Kiefer, P., Mizuki, M., Dugas, P. O. T., & Raubal, M. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3791175 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationMobile Maps Continue to Fail Pedestrians: Synthesised Reflective Auto-Aggro-Ethnographies of Walking
Dugas, P. O. T., Seetharaman, B., Fleming, R. J., Liang, S., Elvitigala, D. S., Rode, J. A., & LaLone, N. J. (2025) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/3706599.3716217 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationAutonomous Human Navigation Using Wearable Multiple Laser Projection Suit
Nayak, S. K., Ohno, K., Neto, R. P. B., Konyo, M., & Tadokoro, S. (2022) · IEEE International Symposium on Safety, Security, and Rescue Robotics (SSRR) · doi:10.1109/ssrr56537.2022.10018708
“Also, the system would offload human mental processing from navigation to other mission-critical operations like safety, communication, etc. Traditionally, SAR relied on maps [1] or screen-based [2] [3] handheld devices for navigation.”
Background
- Authors
- Alharthi, S. A., Hamilton, W. A., Dolgov, I., & Toups Dugas, P. O.
- Affiliations
- New Mexico State University (US)
- New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA
- Venue
- Companion of the 2018 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2018-10-30
- Pages
- 137-140
- OpenAlex
- W2899226493
- Cited by
- 14
- References
- 12
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 3.45
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (IIS-1651532,IIS-1619273)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Human Factors and Ergonomics › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Disaster Management and Resilience
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Design Education and Practice
- Keywords
- search and rescue, outdoor mapping, collaborative sensemaking, collaborative planning, activity theory, disaster response, Hurricane Harvey, Hurricane Maria, information sharing
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