The DOI matches its Crossref record; 177 of the 182 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 44 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Political Islam: Theory
Open accessAbstract
This essay focuses on questions that pertain to the ideological, normative, symbolic, and epochal aspects of political Islam. Political theorists, historians, sociologists, and anthropologists have disagreed on whether political Islam is an exclusively modern political phenomenon or is indebted to long-standing Islamic religious commitments. More specifically, they have also disagreed on whether the shape and ambitions of political Islam are entirely determined by the powers and institutions of the modern, bureaucratic state, particularly its secular desire to control, regulate, and reshape religion. These interpretive debates have often sat uneasily with ongoing normative debates about what kind of secularism democracy requires and whether democracy has priority over liberal rights and freedoms.
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42 Own interpretation · 12 No full text of the sources · 7 Sources not found · 6 Not checked yet · 3 No basis given · 1 Supported so far
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In the paper
“There is also a substantial literature on the development of hybrid theodemocratic ideologies and constitutional visions by Islamist groups out of power before 2011 (Baker 2006, El-Ghobashy 2005, Harnisch & Mecham 2009, March 2013, Rutherford 2006, Stilt 2010, Wickham 2013).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Baker 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites El-Ghobashy 2005 source
The Abstract describes the Muslim Brothers’ pre-2011 adoption of democratic ideas grounded in Islamic concepts. The section on 1990–95 ideological reconstruction discusses a statement that combines Qur’anic consultation and sharia with a written constitution, a balance of powers, public freedoms, and a legislature. This paper is an example of the literature cited; it need not establish the size of that literature on its own. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harnisch & Mecham 2009 source
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In the paper
“The boldest attempts to”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schirazi 1998
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In the paper
“But the political resurgence of Islam has played no small part in reopening scholarly questions about some of modernity's central practices, powers, and assumptions.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
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In the paper
“The study of political Islam would be incomplete if it focused only on nonstate social movements, parties, and militant organizations (Mandaville 2007, pp. 147-97;Nasr 2001).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mandaville 2007
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- Not matchedcites Nasr 2001
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In the paper
“Modern Islamist thinkers across the political spectrum have articulated a fairly novel apologetics of Islamic law and politics that consistently draws on the theme of Islam's essential harmony with humans' innate disposition ( fitra) and moral psychology (March 2015).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites March 2015 source
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In the paper
“There are also important similarities in political praxis.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
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In the paper
“A key attribute of classical Sunnism is that it gave up hope for a perfectly just and pious ruler and relied instead on the force of the law and the community's knowledge of it.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
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In the paper
“Political Islam has been at the center of these debates.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
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In the paper
“the study of Islamic political practices as part of the critical study of secularism sometimes requires silencing or mischaracterizing internal Islamic motivations and conceptions of political power because the domination of the secular state is seen as so complete.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > POLITICAL ISLAM AND THE CRITICAL STUDY OF SECULARISM
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In the paper
“But political Islamism cannot be mapped so neatly onto a modern European left-right ideological spectrum.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“it has been widely observed that the eventual democratic victory of the Islamist AK (Adalet ve Kalkınma) Party resulted in a more formally democratic constitution after decades of military guardianship (Bâli 2012, Gunter 2012, Yavuz 2009).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
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In the paper
“Islamist groups from the Brotherhood to Al Qaeda have embraced cults of sacrifice and martyrdom (as have modern nationalisms) and see violence as a necessary means for attaining their goals.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
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In the paper
“My own view is that this harsh interpretation overstates the aspirations of Asad, Mahmood, and others associated with the critical study of secularism.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > POLITICAL ISLAM AND THE CRITICAL STUDY OF SECULARISM
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In the paper
“At worst, there is a temptation in this scholarship to misrepresent Islamic political and ethical traditions in order to fit a particular theoretical narrative about the radical mismatch between modern secular-liberal state power and Muslim ethical sensibilities”
§ Political Islam: Theory > POLITICAL ISLAM AND THE CRITICAL STUDY OF SECULARISM
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In the paper
“But academics have taken seriously the comparison with twentieth-century European fascism, and for good reason.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
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In the paper
“Much modern Islamist thought not only is utopian but also aspires to being realistically utopian (March 2010).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites March 2010 source
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In the paper
“But the critical study of secularism is (justifiably) focused more on exploring secular power than on exploring Islamism, and it is often concerned with redeeming Islamist or Muslim political alternatives to secularism only in a thinly relativist sense.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > POLITICAL ISLAM AND THE CRITICAL STUDY OF SECULARISM
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In the paper
“For Asad, secularism involves not just the separation of public reason (secular) and private reason (religious) but also the transformations that allow religion to be so reformed.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > POLITICAL ISLAM AND THE CRITICAL STUDY OF SECULARISM
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In the paper
“Whereas Tibi unselfconsciously asserts that Islam is mere faith and devotion, the problem with Gray's analysis is that it is largely a priori.That is, he extrapolates from his theoretical understanding of modern European totalitarianism rather than from any study of Islam, medieval or modern, or of Islamism, radical or other.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
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In the paper
“Both fascism and Islamism are often led by recently disposed or dislodged classes; the frustrated middle classes often make up the core of Islamist activists (Fischer 1982).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Fischer 1982
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In the paper
“The work of Asad (2003) has inspired one very important strand of this inquiry.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > POLITICAL ISLAM AND THE CRITICAL STUDY OF SECULARISM
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Asad 2003 source
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In the paper
“Political Islam by and large belongs to the right of the political spectrum, but it would be a mistake to see it as a single movement or ideology.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“Islam does bequeath a powerful political impulse, but this prevents neither Islam itself from changing nor Muslims from assimilating a variety of novel values and desires in politics.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
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In the paper
“Al Qaeda preaches a classical doctrine of obedience to God and a political theology of Muslim power (Abou El Fadl 2001), but it rarely speaks of its ideal Islamic order in the kinds of utopian-millenarian terms that Gray associates with modern totalitarianism.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Abou El Fadl 2001 source
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In the paper
“Qutb is most famous for his concepts of the modern world as an un-Islamic space of pagan ignorance ( jahiliyya) and the need to restore God's legislative sovereignty (hakimiyya) (Mandaville 2007, pp. 76-83;Qutb 2008;Shepard 2003).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mandaville 2007
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- Not matchedcites Qutb 2008
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- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shepard 2003 source
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In the paper
“The Egyptian Sayyid Qutb (executed by 'Abd al-Nasir in 1966) is perhaps the most important modern Islamist political theorist.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > WHAT IS MODERN ABOUT POLITICAL ISLAM?
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In the paper
“However, an important feature of such discussions in Western academic political theory is that they are normative debates about the practices of other societies.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
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In the paper
“One debate focuses on the compatibility of Islam and democracy: Some scholars dispute it (Fukuyama 2001;Gellner 1994;Hallaq 2013;Huntington 1984Huntington , 1996;;Kedourie 1992;Kramer 1993;Lewis 1996), whereas others find democratic self-governance rooted in the core texts, practices, and values of classical Islam (Abou El Fadl 2003, 2004;Khan 2006;Moussalli 2001;Sachedina 2001;Sulami 2003).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Fukuyama 2001
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- Not matchedcites Gellner 1994
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- Not matchedcites Hallaq 2013
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In the paper
“However, at its best, this literature resists simplistic narratives of secular progress and religious backwardness.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > POLITICAL ISLAM AND THE CRITICAL STUDY OF SECULARISM
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In the paper
“Furthermore, although his argument concerning free choice takes the form of a theological truth claim, he does not address the traditional Islamic theological arguments for the public enforcement of certain areas of morality, not to mention the enforcement of Islamic legal norms in areas such as contracts, sales, and succession.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
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In the paper
“If Hallaq is right that an Islamic state is an impossibility today, that is likely to be because of the combination of moral pluralism in Muslim societies today and the irrelevance or inadequacy of the premodern Islamic legal corpus for most social and economic policy areas within which Muslims expect their states to act.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
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In the paper
“Hallaq cites almost no social history to defend these claims and does not discuss the social conflicts that shari 'a could not eradicate (for a less mythic approach, see Al-Azmeh 2007).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Al-Azmeh 2007 source
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In the paper
“Even if the individual scholars participating in the academic debate come from Muslim contexts themselves, the audience for the debate is not the same as the community whose political life is being debated.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
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In the paper
“Hashemi is one of many secular political theorists living outside Iran whose confidence has been boosted by the disappointments of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Ghobadzadeh 2013;Jahanbegloo 2009Jahanbegloo , 2013)).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
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In the paper
“In contrast, Western scholars of Islam and Islamic law have raised radical doubts about the compatibility between the Islamist desire to apply shari 'a and the modern state.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
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In the paper
“However, a wide range of Islamic theological and political discourses share his most central ideas: that”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites An-Na'im 2008
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In the paper
“The siyasa/fiqh dichotomy qualifies the idea that Islamic governance was based purely on the apolitical rule of shari 'a and raises complex political questions about how to draw the line between those areas of life where public authorities may coerce and legislate, with only the broadest imprimatur of the religious scholars, and those areas where the scholars may”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
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In the paper
“But the brief moments of relatively free political competition reinforce the sense that the question of religion and political Islam remains among the core political fault lines in many Muslim societies.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
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In the paper
“Among the more widely held assumptions in theoretical debates on democracy in the Middle East may be that in societies as religious as most Muslim societies are, strict secularism could prevail only through unacceptably antidemocratic tyranny, and thus that democracy in Muslim societies normatively requires a particularly robust space for religious language, values, and protections (Bilgrami 2012,”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
What the sources say
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In the paper
“An-Na'im's idea that applying shari 'a is impossible, because human interpretation is always involved, seems to hold the idea of a religious nomocracy to an ontological standard to which few orthodox Muslims have aspired.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
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- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But even though his book aims at exploring”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is no mention of the distinction between morality (what we owe others as a matter of justice) and ethics (care of the self ), and thus no suggestion that any modern legal and political institutions might aim at morality while acknowledging multiple ethical projects.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“there is a sizable literature (predating the Arab Spring) on the question of political Islam and theories of democracy and popular sovereignty (see Esposito & Voll 1996, Lewis 1993, Najjar 1958, Wright 1991, Zartman 1992, Zubaida 1992).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Events in Egypt, not to mention Syria and Iraq, have marked a historical turning point for political Islam.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: The military coup of July 3, 2013, sealed by the May 2014 presidential election, has put an end to any form of open political participation on the part of Islamists (or non-Islamists) in Egypt.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Others echo these reflections on the Islamic world.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many other theorists have been more interested in how the evolution of political Islam points to unique models of democracy with a”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is also no recognition that Muslims might have reasonable disagreements about ethics.”
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Many scholars have focused on the fact that Muslim states have gradually Islamized their laws and developed jurisprudential theories of shari 'a compatibility (Brown 1997, Fadel 2013, Lombardi 2006, Moustafa 2007).”
§ Political Islam: Theory > ISLAMISM, DEMOCRACY, AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Islam regards the community of believers (the umma) as the most important political community.
“But because Islam regards the community of believers (the umma) as the most important political community, transnationalism and cosmopolitanism are unavoidable in Islamist activism.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Islamism is almost everywhere operating within the structures of modern secular states.
“Islamism is almost everywhere operating within the structures of modern secular states.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The centralized, bureaucratic, legislating, sovereign state was imposed on Muslim societies throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, sometimes by local modernizing elites and sometimes by European colonial powers.
“The centralized, bureaucratic, legislating, sovereign state was imposed on Muslim societies throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, sometimes by local modernizing elites and sometimes by European colonial powers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Even where traditional religious law was still enforced in matters of family and personal status in shari 'a courts, those courts received their authorization from state authorities and usually applied newly codified (and simplified) versions of traditional Islamic law.
“Even where traditional religious law was still enforced in matters of family and personal status in shari 'a courts, those courts received their authorization from state authorities and usually applied newly codified (and simplified) versions of traditional Islamic law.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many Muslims think that in all times and places they must try to order their lives and societies in accordance with the most important purposes and priorities of Islam, recognizing historical changes and engaging dialectically with them.
“Nevertheless, many Muslims think that in all times and places they must try to order their lives and societies in accordance with the most important purposes and priorities of Islam, recognizing historical changes and engaging dialectically with them.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Both classical theory and practice distinguished between two realms: governance (siyasa) and religious law (fiqh).
“Both classical theory and practice distinguished between two realms: governance (siyasa) and religious law ( fiqh).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The military coup of July 3, 2013, sealed by the May 2014 presidential election, has put an end to any form of open political participation on the part of Islamists (or non-Islamists) in Egypt.
“But what is certain is that the military coup of July 3, 2013, sealed by the May 2014 presidential election, has put an end to any form of open political participation on the part of Islamists (or non-Islamists) in that country.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Political Islam: Theory > IS THE "ISLAMIC STATE" A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS?
“the Islamic modernism of Muhammad 'Abduh and the young Rashid Rida (Kerr 1996)”
§ Political Islam: Theory > References
“97. Kerr MH. 1966. Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad 'Abduh and Rashid Rida.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- March, A. F.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- March, Andrew F.
- ORCID
- March, Andrew F.
- Venue
- Annual Review of Political Science
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2015-05-11
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 103-123
- ISSN
- 1094-2939 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-1577
- OpenAlex
- W2154224507
- Cited by
- 78
- References
- 182
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 15.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Political Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Multiculturalism, Politics, Migration, Gender
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Islamic Studies and History
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Religion and Society Interactions
- Keywords
- political Islam, secularism, democracy, modernity, church-state relations, secular state, liberal rights, religion and politics, normative theory
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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