The DOI matches its Crossref record; 84 of the 88 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A phenotypic null hypothesis for the genetics of personality.
Abstract
We review the genetically informed literature on the genetics of personality. Over the past century, quantitative genetic studies, using identical and fraternal twins, have demonstrated that differences in human personality are substantially heritable. We focus on more contemporary questions to which that basic observation has led. We examine whether differences in the heritability of personality are replicable across different traits, samples, and studies; how the heritability of personality relates to its reliability; and how behavior genetics can be employed in studies of validity, and we discuss the stability of personality in genetic and environmental variance. The appropriate null hypothesis in behavior genetics is not that genetic or environmental influence on personality is zero. Instead, we offer a phenotypic null hypothesis, which states that genetic variance is not an independent mechanism of individual differences in personality but rather a reflection of processes that are best conceptualized at the phenotypic level.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These findings have since then been confirmed in several other publications (Briley & Tucker-Drob, 2014;Turkheimer et al., 2014).”
From The Role of Personality in Language Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Turkheimer et al., 2014
Citations
Cites
Lesch, K.-P., Bengel, D., Heils, A., Sabol, S. Z., Greenberg, B. D., Petri, S., Benjamin, J., Müller, C. R., Hamer, D. H., & Murphy, D. L. (1996) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.274.5292.1527 · Cited by 5,162
Genetic Dissection of Complex Traits
Lander, E. S., & Schork, N. J. (1994) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.8091226 · Cited by 3,425
Hastie, T. J., & Tibshirani, R. J. (2014) · Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online · doi:10.1002/9781118445112.stat03141 · Cited by 3,156
Personality Development: Stability and Change
Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. (2005) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141913 · Cited by 2,699
The blank slate: the modern denial of human nature
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-4305 · Cited by 2,452
Higher-order factors of the Big Five.
Digman, J. M. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.73.6.1246 · Cited by 1,839
Benjamin, J., Li, L., Patterson, C. A., Greenberg, B. D., Murphy, D. L., & Hamer, D. H. (1996) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng0196-81 · Cited by 1,191
Genes, evolution, and personality
Bouchard, T. J., & Loehlin, J. C. (2001) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1023/a:1012294324713 · Cited by 1,085
Theory-Testing in Psychology and Physics: A Methodological Paradox
Meehl, P. E. (1967) · Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/288135 · Cited by 962
Higher-order factors of the Big Five in a multi-informant sample.
DeYoung, C. G. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.6.1138 · Cited by 933
Research works printed but not linked: 10
- 10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1246 · DOI · Paper page
- Hastie T, 1990, Monographs on Statistics and Applied Probability, 43
- 10.1037//0022-3514.74.6.1556 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1037/0021-843X.111.2.380 · DOI
- Krueger RF, 2008, Handb. Personal. Theory Res., 3, 287
- 10.1037//0012-1649.29.1.96 · DOI · Paper page
- Munafò MR, 2011, Trends Cogn. Sci., 15, 395
- Plomin R, 1990, Handb. Personal. Theory Res., 2, 251
- 10.1037//0033-295X.105.4.782-791 · DOI
- 10.1037//0033-2909.126.1.78 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–194 of 194
Abramson, L., Eldar, E., Markovitch, N., & Knafo‐Noam, A. (2022) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12772 · Cited by 14
Caprara, G. V., & Vecchione, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.038 · Cited by 9
Melchers, M., Plieger, T., Montag, C., Reuter, M., Spinath, F. M., & Hahn, E. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.05.023 · Cited by 9
Genetics and Human Agency: The Philosophy of Behavior Genetics Introduction to the Special Issue
Turkheimer, E. N. (2019) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-019-09952-z · Cited by 8
Self-citationKandler, C., Richter, J., & Zapko–Willmes, A. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1473-1 · Cited by 9
Conceptual and Historical Perspectives
Cloninger, S. C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.004 · Cited by 8
Taking risks to feel excitement: Detailed personality profile and genetic associations
Ausmees, L., Talts, M., Allïk, J., Vainik, U., Sikka, T. T., Nikopensius, T., Esko, T., & Realo, A. (2021) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070211019242 · Cited by 7
Shala, A., Grajcevci, A., & Latifi, F. (2021) · Revija za elementarno izobraževanje · doi:10.18690/rei.14.4.393-408.2021 · Cited by 7
The Dead Ends of Sociogenomics
Robette, N., & Reeve, P. (2022) · Population (English Edition) · doi:10.3917/popu.2202.0191 · Cited by 7
Linking genetic foundations of sleep disturbances to personality traits: a study of mid‐life twins
Križan, Z., Freilich, C. D., Krueger, R. F., & Mann, F. D. (2023) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13903 · Cited by 7
Sketch of a Dynamic Common Pathways, Epigenetic Theory of Psychopathology with Hypotheses
Nigg, J. T. (2026) · Studies in systems, decision and control · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-17029-3_3 · Cited by 6
Personality, Preferences and Socioeconomic Behavior
Ferguson, E., Zhao, K., & Smillie, L. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.044 · Cited by 6
Body mass predicts personality development across 18 years in middle to older adulthood
Arumäe, K., Mõttus, R., & Vainik, U. (2023) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12816 · Cited by 6
Sources of variances in personality change during adolescence
Kawamoto, T., & Endo, T. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.01.018 · Cited by 9
Temperament and Brain Networks of Attention
Rothbart, M. K., Posner, M. I., & Sheese, B. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.016 · Cited by 8
Biesanz, J. C., & Wallace, J. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.006 · Cited by 7
Personality in Clinical Psychology
Widiger, T. A., & McCabe, G. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.042 · Cited by 5
States and Situations, Traits and Environments
Asendorpf, J. B., & Rauthmann, J. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.007 · Cited by 10
Openness/Intellect: A Unique Trait Requires Unique Considerations
Schwaba, T., & Thalmayer, A. G. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683251377227 · Cited by 15
Cho, H., & Kang, H. (2023) · Leisure Sciences · doi:10.1080/01490400.2023.2264846 · Cited by 4
Entity Focus: Applied Genetic Science at Different Levels
Turkheimer, E. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108750349.046 · Cited by 4
Self-citationWhen and why is “extraversion” associated with social popularity?Preprint
Ilmarinen, V. (2018) · Thesis Commons (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31237/osf.io/3nfgh · Cited by 5
Kahl, B. L., & Kavanagh, P. S. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1632-1 · Cited by 4
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith · doi:10.1017/9781108566520 · Cited by 3
Personality Traits and Mental Disorders
Hakulinen, C. A., Jokela, M. M., Mika Kivimaki, B., & Elovainio, M. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.018 · Cited by 4
Anxiety, Depression and Cognitive Dysfunction
Eysenck, M. W., & Holmes, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.033 · Cited by 3
Salgado, J. F., Anderson, N. R., & Moscoso, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.040 · Cited by 4
Models of Personality Structure
Raad, B. D., & Barelds, D. P. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.012 · Cited by 4
Cognitive Processes and Models
Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.028 · Cited by 5
Basic Needs, Goals and Motivation
Szalma, J. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.030 · Cited by 3
Personality in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Dragūns, J. G., & Tanaka‐Matsumi, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.037 · Cited by 4
Narrative Identity in the Social World
McLean, K. C., Syed, M., Haraldsson, K. G., & Lowe, L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.035 · Cited by 2
Lynam, D. R., Vize, C. E., & Miller, J. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.043 · Cited by 2
Jayawickreme, E., & Zachry, C. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.032 · Cited by 2
Behavioral Genetics and Affect at Work
Li, W., Zhang, X., Song, Z., & Wang, Y. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108573887.006 · Cited by 2
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.020 · Cited by 4
Models of Physical Health and Personality
Heilmayr, D., & Friedman, H. S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.019 · Cited by 2
Corral‐López, A., Bloch, N. I., van der Bijl, W., Cortázar‐Chinarro, M., Szorkovszky, A., Kotrschal, A., Darolti, I., Buechel, S. D., Romenskyy, M., Kolm, N., et al. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.02.13.528353 · Cited by 2
Schwaba, T., Nivard, M. G., Tucker–Drob, E. M., & Boomsma, D. I. (2025) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-013125-042402 · Cited by 4
Zachar, P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108750349.023 · Cited by 1
Genetic Information and How It Flows
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.003 · Cited by 1
Sallis, H., Smith, G. D., & Munafo, M. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.024 · Cited by 1
Self-Regulation and Control in Personality Functioning
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.029 · Cited by 1
The role of Big Five personality domains and facets in musical sensibility: a twin study
Hansen, H. M. U., Laeng, B., Vassend, O. M., Czajkowski, N. O., Endestad, T., Danielsen, A., & Røysamb, E. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-95661-z · Cited by 3
Personality in Nonhuman Animals
Bell, A. M., & Bensky, M. K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.023 · Cited by 1
Weiß, A., & Deary, I. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.005 · Cited by 2
Personality and the Unconscious
Perugini, M., Richetin, J., & Costantini, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.008 · Cited by 2
Corr, P. J., & Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.001 · Cited by 1
Addendum: Statistical Analyses and Computer Programming in Personality
Corr, P. J., & Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.045 · Cited by 1
Taking Risks to Feel Excitement: Detailed Personality Profile and Genetic AssociationsPreprint
Ausmees, L., Talts, M., Allïk, J., Vainik, U., Sikka, T. T., Nikopensius, T., Esko, T., & Realo, A. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ps9gn · Cited by 1
The Role of Personality in Language Learning
Mrzyglod, E., Esposito, A., Fabbro, A., Fabbro, F., Crescentini, C., & Matiz, A. (2026) · Psychology of Language and Communication · doi:10.58734/plc-2026-0004
Democratic Demands and Citizen Capabilities
Dusso, A. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53603-3_1
Gay Genes? Genetics and Sexual Orientation
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.011
Wiebe, A. W., & Luciano, M. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0027255
Using a Systems-Based Risk Score Approach to Examine Genetic Predisposition to Novelty Seeking
Conner, B. T., Hellemann, G., Demianczyk, A. C., Ritchie, T. L., & Noble, E. P. (2017) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000233
Shamanic Healing Ceremonies, Hypnosis and the Survival of the Suggestibles
Krippner, S. (2019) · Online Journal of Complementary & Alternative Medicine · doi:10.33552/ojcam.2019.03.000554
Jang, K. L., & Choi, F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108333931.010
Personality Assessment Methods
Boyle, G. J., & Helmes, E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.011 · Cited by 1
Schermer, J. A., & Saklofske, D. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.014
Social Relations and Social Support
Austin, E. Q., Knack, J. M., Jensen‐Campbell, L. A., & Rex‐Lear, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.036
Definitions of Technical Terms
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.015
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.005
Genes and Environments in Human Development
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.004
Genes, Personality and Personality Disorders
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.008
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.006
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.013
La deriva continental y la tectónica de placas: cien años de la teoría de la Deriva Continental
González, A. D. V. (2012) · Alkaid: revista multitemática
Corr, P. J., & Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.002
Genes, Religiosity and Political Commitment
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.010
Genes, Education and Intelligence
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.007
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.012
Genes, Food, Exercise and Weight
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.009
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.002
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.016
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.001
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.017
Loehlin, J. C. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_734-1
Kandler, C., Richter, J., & Zapko–Willmes, A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1473
Loehlin, J. C. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_734
Kahl, B. L., & Kavanagh, P. S. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1632
Kline, P. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203168431-10
Loehlin, J. C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_734-2
Alexander, D. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108566520.014
Hill, H. M. M., Yeater, D. B., Lenhart, E., & Highfill, L. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_968-1 · Cited by 2
Corr, P. J., & Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.046
Cloninger, K. M., & Garcia, D. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_403
Cloninger, K. M., & Garcia, D. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_403-1
An interdisciplinary perspective on personality
von Borell, C. (2022) · eDiss (Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) · doi:10.53846/goediss-9487
Neyer, F. J., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-67385-0_6
The Assessment and Heritability of a Brief Measure of Agency
Junkins, E. J., Briley, D. A., & Derringer, J. L. (2025) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-025-10220-6
Williams, C. M. (2022) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/4418ee9dz5bd3z43f7za4efz5ddac1baed0f
Die Differentielle und Persönlichkeitspsychologie im Jahr 2025
Rauthmann, J. F., Armbruster, D., Asselmann, E., Berkessel, J. B., Bleidorn, W., Buecker, S., Gärtner, A., Leising, D., Luhmann, M., Phan, L. V., et al. (2026) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042/a000737
Is the Gene‐ie Out of the Bottle? The Problems and Perils of Genetics Research in Management
Clarke, J. S., Cornelissen, J., & Healey, M. P. (2026) · Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.1111/joms.70164
Metadata
- Authors
- Turkheimer, E., Pettersson, E., & Horn, E. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2014-01-03
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 515-540
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- OpenAlex
- W2145597092
- Cited by
- 194
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 3
- FWCI
- 1.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- personality genetics, heritability, behavioral genetics, twin studies, reliability statistics, validity, genetic variance, environmental variance, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Individuality, Personality, Phenotype, Social Environment, Twins
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
