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Cited by 6,001Social and Intergroup PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social ExclusionSocial Power and Status Dynamics

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INTERGROUP CONTACT THEORY

Pettigrew, Thomas F.·1998·Annual Review of Psychology
DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65
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Abstract

Allport specified four conditions for optimal intergroup contact: equal group status within the situation, common goals, intergroup cooperation and authority support. Varied research supports the hypothesis, but four problems remain. 1. A selection bias limits cross-sectional studies, since prejudiced people avoid intergroup contact. Yet research finds that the positive effects of cross-group friendship are larger than those of the bias. 2. Writers overburden the hypothesis with facilitating, but not essential, conditions. 3. The hypothesis fails to address process. The chapter proposes four processes: learning about the outgroup, changed behavior, affective ties, and ingroup reappraisal. 4. The hypothesis does not specify how the effects generalize to other situations, the outgroup or uninvolved outgroups. Acting sequentially, three strategies enhance generalization-decategorization, salient categorization, and recategorization. Finally, both individual differences and societal norms shape intergroup contact effects. The chapter outlines a longitudinal intergroup contact theory. It distinguishes between essential and facilitating factors, and emphasizes different outcomes for different stages of contact.

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Metadata

Authors
Pettigrew, T. F.
Affiliations
University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
Corresponding author
Pettigrew, Thomas F.
ORCID
Pettigrew, Thomas F.
Venue
Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher
Annual Reviews
Published
1998-02
Volume
49
Issue
1
Pages
65-85
ISSN
  • 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-2085
DOI
10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65
OpenAlex
W2144354189
Cited by
6,001
References
128
Citations by year
2026: 202 · 2025: 276 · 2024: 303 · 2023: 300 · 2022: 314 · 2021: 452 · 2020: 402 · 2019: 326 · 2018: 356 · 2017: 282 · 2016: 266 · 2015: 288 · 2014: 263 · 2013: 276 · 2012: 279
FWCI
17.12
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
Keywords
contact hypothesis, Allport, prejudice reduction, cross-group friendship, selection bias, intergroup cooperation, affective bonds, decategorization, recategorization, individual differences, social norms

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