CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 6,001Social and Intergroup PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social ExclusionSocial Power and Status Dynamics

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 131 of the 131 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

INTERGROUP CONTACT THEORY

Pettigrew, Thomas F.·1998·Annual Review of Psychology
DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Allport specified four conditions for optimal intergroup contact: equal group status within the situation, common goals, intergroup cooperation and authority support. Varied research supports the hypothesis, but four problems remain. 1. A selection bias limits cross-sectional studies, since prejudiced people avoid intergroup contact. Yet research finds that the positive effects of cross-group friendship are larger than those of the bias. 2. Writers overburden the hypothesis with facilitating, but not essential, conditions. 3. The hypothesis fails to address process. The chapter proposes four processes: learning about the outgroup, changed behavior, affective ties, and ingroup reappraisal. 4. The hypothesis does not specify how the effects generalize to other situations, the outgroup or uninvolved outgroups. Acting sequentially, three strategies enhance generalization-decategorization, salient categorization, and recategorization. Finally, both individual differences and societal norms shape intergroup contact effects. The chapter outlines a longitudinal intergroup contact theory. It distinguishes between essential and facilitating factors, and emphasizes different outcomes for different stages of contact.

Overview

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65

Cites

131 of 131 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Citations

Cites

Show all 128 references

Research works printed but not linked: 41

  1. Anastasio P, Bachman B, Gaertner S, Dovidio J. 1997. Categorization, recategorization and common ingroup identity. SeeSpears et al 1997, pp. 236–56
  2. 10.1037//0022-3514.72.1.105 · DOI · Paper page
  3. Ben-Ari R, Amir Y. 1986. Contact between Arab and Jewish youth in Israel: reality and potential. SeeHewstone & Brown 1986, pp. 45–58
  4. Bornman E, 1991, Genet. Soc. Gen. Psychol. Monogr., 117, 437
  5. Braddock JH, 1984, Phi Delta Kappan, 66, 259
  6. Brown RJ, Turner JC. 1981. Interpersonal and intergroup behavior. In Intergroup Behavior , ed. J Turner, H Giles, pp. 33–65. Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press. 277 pp.
  7. Cagle LT, 1973, Sociol. Soc. Res., 57, 342
  8. Chang H, 1973, Sociol. Soc. Res., 58, 66
  9. Cook SW, 1978, J. Res. Dev. Educ., 12, 97
  10. Drew B. 1988. Intergenerational contact in the workplace: an anthropological study of relationships in the secondary labor market . PhD thesis. Rutgers Univ., New Brunswick, NJ. 285 pp.
  11. Durkheim E. 1960. (1893). The Division of Labor . Glencoe, IL: Free Press. 439 pp.
  12. Ellison CG, 1994, Soc. Sci. Q., 75, 385
  13. Epler R, 1990, Psychol. Erzieh. Unterr., 37, 172
  14. Ford WS, 1986, Sociol. Soc. Res., 70, 256
  15. Heist DR, 1975, Causal Analysis.
  16. Hewstone M. 1996. Contact and categorization: social-psychological interventions to change intergroup relations. In Foundations of Stereotypes and Stereotyping , ed. CN Macrae, C Stagnor, M Hewstone, pp. 323–68. New York: Guilford. 462 pp.
  17. Kinloch GC, 1991, Int. J. Cont. Sociol., 28, 85
  18. Kirk T. 1993. The polarisation of Protestants and Roman Catholics in rural Northern Ireland: a case study of Glenravel Ward, County Antrim 1956 to 1988 . PhD thesis. Queen's Univ., Belfast, North. Ireland. 541 pp.
  19. McGarty C, de la Haye AM. 1997. Stereotype formation: beyond illusory correlation. SeeSpears et al 1997, pp. 144–70
  20. Morrison EW, Herlihy JM. 1992. Becoming the best place to work: Managing diversity at American Express Travel related services. In Diversity in the Workplace , ed. SE Jackson, pp. 203–26. New York: Guilford. 356 pp.
  21. Ohm RM. 1988. Constructing and reconstructing social distance attitudes . PhD thesis. Ariz. State Univ., Tempe. 316 pp.
  22. 10.1037//0022-3514.59.3.475 · DOI · Paper page
  23. Pettigrew TF. 1975. The racial integration of the schools. In Racial Discrimination in the United States , ed. TF Pettigrew, pp. 224–39. New York: Harper & Row. 429 pp.
  24. Pettigrew TF. 1986. The contact hypothesis revisited. SeeHewstone & Brown 1986, pp. 169–95
  25. Reif K, 1991, Euro-Barometer 30: Immigrants and Out-Groups in Western Europe, 1988.
  26. Rose TL. 1981. Cognitive and dyadic processes in intergroup contact. In Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior , ed. DL Hamilton, pp. 145–81. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 366 pp.
  27. Russell MJ, 1961, Study of a South African Inter-Racial Neighbourhood.
  28. Saenger G, 1950, Int. J. Opin. Attent. Res., 4, 57
  29. 10.1037//0022-3514.69.3.437 · DOI · Paper page
  30. Sherif M, 1966, In Common Predicament.
  31. Slavin RE, 1983, Cooperative Learning.
  32. Stephan CW, 1992, Cult. Divers. Sch., 2, 145
  33. Stephan WG, 1987, Rev. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 9, 13
  34. Taylor DM, Dube L, Bellerose J. 1986. Intergroup contact in Quebec. SeeHewstone & Brown 1986, pp. 107–18
  35. 1955, A Progress Report on Integration in the Armed Services, 1954.
  36. Wagner U, Machleit U. 1986. “Gestarbeiter” in the Federal Republic of Germany: contact between Germans and migrant populations. SeeHewstone & Brown 1986, pp. 59–78
  37. Watson G, 1947, Action for Unity.
  38. 10.1037//0022-3514.45.5.961 · DOI · Paper page
  39. Weigert KM, 1976, Int. J. Group Tens., 6, 110
  40. 10.1037//0022-3514.32.2.300 · DOI
  41. 10.1037//0022-3514.38.4.589 · DOI

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Items 101–200 of 1,016

Related

See all

Metadata

Authors
Pettigrew, T. F.
Affiliations
University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
Corresponding author
Pettigrew, Thomas F.
ORCID
Pettigrew, Thomas F.
Venue
Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher
Annual Reviews
Published
1998-02
Volume
49
Issue
1
Pages
65-85
ISSN
  • 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-2085
DOI
10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65
OpenAlex
W2144354189
Cited by
6,001
References
128
Citations by year
2026: 202 · 2025: 276 · 2024: 303 · 2023: 300 · 2022: 314 · 2021: 452 · 2020: 402 · 2019: 326 · 2018: 356 · 2017: 282 · 2016: 266 · 2015: 288 · 2014: 263 · 2013: 276 · 2012: 279
FWCI
17.12
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
Keywords
contact hypothesis, Allport, prejudice reduction, cross-group friendship, selection bias, intergroup cooperation, affective bonds, decategorization, recategorization, individual differences, social norms

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review