Effect of Distorted Visual Feedback on the Sense of Agency
Open accessAbstract
It has been hypothesized that an internal model is involved in controlling and recognizing one’s own actions (action attribution). This results from a comparison process between the predicted sensory feedback of the action and its real sensory consequences. The aim of the present study is to distinguish the respective importance of two action parameters (time and direction) on such an attribution judgment. We used a device that allows introduction of discordance between the movements actually performed and the sensory feedback displayed on a computer screen. Participants were asked to judge whether they were viewing (1) their own movements, (2) their own movements modified (spatially or temporally displaced), or (3) those of another agent (i.e, the experimenter). In fact, in all conditions they were only shown their own movements either unaltered or modified by varying amounts in space or time. Movements were only attributed to another agent when therewas a high spatial discordance between participants’ hand movements and sensory feedback. This study is the first to show that the direction of movements is a cardinal feature in action attribution, whereas temporal properties of movements play a less important role.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This study used a joystick/virtual-hand setup to test whether spatial or temporal visual feedback distortion affects action attribution. It found that large angular deviations led participants to attribute their own movements to another agent, whereas even long temporal delays almost never did.
Key findings
- In the spatial condition, participants gave more “self” responses for biases between 0° and 15°, more “bias” responses for biases between 20° and 30° (p < 0.05), and more “other” responses for biases between 50° and 60° (p < 0.05); transitions occurred between 15°–20° and 30°–50°.
- In the temporal condition, participants never gave an “other” response; they gave significantly more “self” responses for biases between 0 ms and 50 ms (p < 0.05) and more “bias” responses for biases between 150 ms and 1100 ms (p < 0.05).
- Repeated measures ANOVA showed a significant main effect of response, F(2, 38) = 86.05, p < 0.0001, and significant interactions: response × bias value, F(26, 494) = 165.11, p < 0.0001; response × modality, F(2, 38) = 188.40, p < 0.0001; and three-way interaction, F(26, 494) = 64.63, p < 0.0001.
- Post-hoc tests found significantly more “bias” responses in the temporal modality than in the angular modality (p < 0.0001), and more “other” responses in the angular modality than in the temporal modality (p < 0.0001), with no significant difference for “self” responses between modalities.
Methods
- Twenty participants (mean age 29.8 ± 10.95; average Edinburgh handedness score 79.05 ± 32.04) held a joystick with their right hand and made random movements while viewing a virtual hand via a mirror, with no direct view of their own hand.
- Trials included neutral movements, 13 angular bias values (5°, 10°, 15°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°, 60°, 70°, 80°, 90°, 100°, 110°), and 13 temporal bias values (50, 100, 150, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1100 ms); each value was repeated 10 times, yielding 270 trials per participant in pseudo-random order.
- Participants verbally judged each trial as “self,” “bias,” or “other”; responses were analyzed with repeated measures ANOVA (factors: response, modality, bias value) and pairwise t-tests.
Limitations
- The paper does not state limitations explicitly.
- Evident from the text: participants were told they might see the experimenter’s movements, but in reality they were never shown the experimenter’s movements, so “other” responses reflect misattribution of their own modified movements rather than detection of another agent.
- Evident from the text: the sample was 20 participants, predominantly right-handed, using only right-hand joystick movements, and only angular and temporal distortions were tested, which may limit generalization.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 9 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
Movements were only attributed to another agent when there was a high spatial discordance between participants' hand movements and sensory feedback.
“Movements were only attributed to another agent when there was a high spatial discordance between participants' hand movements and sensory feedback.”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“we showed that an important modification of one's own action led participants to attribute this action to another person.”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“modifying the apparent direction of the movement actually performed, by introducing an important spatial deviation ( 50 • ), results in the attribution of one's own actions to another person.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
Participants gave significantly more 'bias' responses than 'self' and 'other' responses, irrespective of the modality of the perturbation.
“We found a significant main effect of response (F (2, 38) = 86.05,p < 0.0001) with participants giving significantly more”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Even with extremely long delays (1100 ms), actions were almost never misattributed.
“However, even with extremely long delays (1100 ms), actions were almost never misattributed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Internal forward models are involved in controlling and recognizing one's own actions (action attribution).
“This ability to refer the origin of an action to oneself (also called”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [12]
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [4]
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [5]
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [6]
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Action attribution results from a comparison process between the predicted sensory feedback of the action and its real sensory consequences.
“This results from a comparison process between the predicted sensory feedback of the action and its real sensory consequences.”
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
“This comparison process has been considered a key mechanism for referring the origin of an action and thus for attributing an action [4].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4]
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
- Interpretationreasoning
An important deviation leads one to attribute one's own movements to another person because the perception of the final goal no longer corresponds to the goal of the intended action.
“An important deviation would thus lead one to attribute one's own movements to another person because the perception of the final goal would no longer correspond to the goal of the intended action.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The recognition of an action as one's own necessitates matching the final goal of the action with the intended action.
“The recognition of an action as one's own necessitates matching the final goal of the action with our intended action.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
An important delay between the movement executed and its visualization does not result in the perception of different goals.
“An important delay between the movement executed and its visualization does not re-sult in the perception of different goals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The difference between angular and temporal modality on misattribution of one's own actions to another agent may be explained by a differential influence of spatial and temporal information on the perception of the goal of a movement.
“We propose that the difference obtained between angular and temporal modality on a misattribution of one's own actions to another agent may be explained by a differential influence of spatial and temporal information on the perception of the goal of a movement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
A modification of the apparent direction of the movement performed leads to the perception of a goal that differs from the one prior to the execution.
“A modification of the apparent direction of the movement performed leads to the perception of a goal that differs from the one prior to the execution.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 10
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the temporal condition, participants gave significantly more 'self' responses for biases between 0 ms and 50 ms and more 'bias' responses for biases between 150 ms and 1100 ms.
“In the temporal condition, participants gave significantly more”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the spatial condition, participants gave 'self' responses for the lowest angular biases, 'bias' responses for intermediate biases, and 'other' responses for the highest biases.
“In the spatial condition, participants gave the three distinct kinds of responses (”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataParticipants gave significantly more 'bias' responses in the temporal modality than in the angular modality, and significantly more 'other' responses in the angular modality than in the temporal modality; no significant difference was found for 'self' responses between modalities.
“Post-hoc analyses with Scheff é's tests revealed that the participants gave significantly more”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the spatial condition, participants gave more 'self' responses for biases between 0° and 15°, more 'bias' responses for biases between 20° and 30°, and more 'other' responses for biases between 50° and 60°.
“In the spatial condition, participants gave more”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn the temporal condition, participants never gave an 'other' response; instead, 'self' responses were given for low temporal biases and 'bias' responses for both intermediate and higher biases.
“In the temporal condition, however, participants never gave an”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn the comparison process, sensory changes correlated with predicted sensory feedback are registered as consequences of one's own action, whereas uncorrelated changes are registered as originating from an external source.
“If the perceived sensory changes are correlated with the predicted sensory feedback, they are registered as consequences of one's own action.If not, by contrast, they are registered as originating from an external source [1,2,4,9].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [1]
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [2]
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [4]
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [9]
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe response given by participants depends not only on the value of the bias but also on the modality of the perturbation.
“These results indicate that the response given by the participants depends not only on the value of the bias but also on the modality of the perturbation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataA first transition in the kind of response from 'self' to 'bias' occurred for bias values between 15° and 20°, and a second transition from 'bias' to 'other' occurred for bias values between 30° and 50°.
“These results indicate that a first transition in the kind of response given by the participants (”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataIn all conditions, participants were only shown their own movements either unaltered or modified; the experimenter's movements were never shown.
“In fact, in all conditions they were only shown their own movements either unaltered or modified by varying amounts in space or time.”
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
“In reality, they only saw their own movements with or without a perturbation; the experimenter's movements were never shown to the participants even though they were told the contrary.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe direction of movements is a cardinal feature in action attribution, whereas temporal properties of movements play a less important role.
“This study is the first to show that the direction of movements is a cardinal feature in action attribution, whereas temporal properties of movements play a less important role.”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · hedged
“The directional information seems thus more important for attributing an action to oneself or to another person than the timing cues.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · hedged
The paper relies on this without support.
The influence of the nature or modality of information on action attribution had never been investigated.
“However, the influence of the nature or the modality of the information on our ability to attribute an action has never been investigated.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
If predicted sensory consequences of a movement are correlated with actual sensory feedback, it gives rise to agency.
“If these are correlated, it gives rise to agency (Farrer et al. 2008).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Farrer et al. 2008
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(2, 38) = 86.05reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F (2, 38) = 86.05,p < .0001”
- ConsistentF(26, 494) = 165.11reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(26, 494) = 165.11,p < .0001”
- ConsistentF(2, 38) = 188.4reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2, 38) = 188.40,p < .0001”
- ConsistentF(26, 494) = 64.63reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(26, 494) = 64.63,p < .0001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
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Sense of agency may not improve recollection and familiarity in recognition memory
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- Authors
- Farrer, C., Bouchereau, M., Jeannerod, M., & Franck, N.
- Affiliations
- Lyon 1 Université (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Farrer, C.
- ORCID
- Farrer, C.
- Venue
- Behavioural Neurology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2008-01
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1-2
- Pages
- 53-57
- ISSN
- 0953-4180 (ISSN-L)
- 1875-8584
- PMC
- PMC5452467
- OpenAlex
- W2148307166
- Cited by
- 186
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 1.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Behavioural Neurology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Medical Research Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Keywords
- sense of agency, visual feedback, internal models, action prediction, movement direction, movement timing, motor control
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Awareness, Feedback, Female, Humans, Male, Psychomotor Performance, Space Perception, Time Factors, Time Perception, User-Computer Interface, Visual Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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