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Cited by 1,438Virtual Reality Applications and ImpactsVisual and Cognitive Learning ProcessesAugmented Reality Applications

The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality

Open access
Makransky, Guido, Petersen, Gustav B.·2021·Educational Psychology Review
DOI 10.1007/s10648-020-09586-2
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Abstract

There has been a surge in interest and implementation of immersive virtual reality (IVR)-based lessons in education and training recently, which has resulted in many studies on the topic. There are recent reviews which summarize this research, but little work has been done that synthesizes the existing findings into a theoretical framework. The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) synthesizes existing immersive educational research to describe the process of learning in IVR. The general theoretical framework of the model suggests that instructional methods which are based on evidence from research with less immersive media generalize to learning in IVR. However, the CAMIL builds on evidence that media interacts with method. That is, certain methods which facilitate the affordances of IVR are specifically relevant in this medium. The CAMIL identifies presence and agency as the general psychological affordances of learning in IVR, and describes how immersion, control factors, and representational fidelity facilitate these affordances. The model describes six affective and cognitive factors that can lead to IVR-based learning outcomes including interest, motivation, self-efficacy, embodiment, cognitive load, and self-regulation. The model also describes how these factors lead to factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge acquisition and knowledge transfer. Implications for future research and instructional design are proposed.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) is a theoretical model proposing that learning in immersive virtual reality (IVR) is driven by the psychological affordances of presence and agency, which arise from immersion, control factors, and representational fidelity. It argues that media interacts with method, so instructional methods that leverage presence and agency are especially effective in IVR.

Key findings

  • CAMIL identifies presence and agency as the general psychological affordances of learning in IVR; immersion, control factors, and representational fidelity are proposed to facilitate these affordances.
  • The model specifies six affective and cognitive factors—interest, intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, embodiment, cognitive load, and self-regulation—that lead to factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge acquisition and knowledge transfer.
  • The paper argues that media interacts with method: cited experiments show instructional methods such as pre-training, enactment, and teaching produce interactions, with benefits in IVR but not in video or desktop VR conditions (e.g., Meyer et al. 2019, n = 118; Makransky et al. 2020a, n = 165; Klingenberg et al. 2020, n = 89).
  • Cognitive load and self-regulation are described as complicated factors: IVR can increase extraneous cognitive load and reduce reflection unless lessons are scaffolded; cited evidence includes Parong and Mayer (2018), where an immersive VR lesson was less effective than PowerPoint for factual knowledge but showed no significant difference for conceptual knowledge.

Methods

  • Theoretical/conceptual paper: it synthesizes existing immersive educational research and educational psychology theories to specify CAMIL; no original empirical data or sample are reported.
  • The model builds on prior frameworks and studies, including Lee et al. (2010), Makransky and Lilleholt (2018), and Makransky and Petersen (2019), and reviews media-and-methods experiments.
  • Main analysis is model specification: it defines constructs and hypothesized paths (Fig. 2) from technological factors to presence and agency, then through affective/cognitive factors to learning outcomes.

Limitations

  • Stated: few empirical studies have specifically tested the paths outlined in the model; more research is needed to test, extend, and revise it.
  • Stated: external factors such as usability, social factors, and individual differences (age, cyber sickness, working memory, personality, absorption, spatial ability) influence the model but are not included in it; the directions of paths 15 and 16 for self-regulation are contingent on instructional design.
  • Evident: the model is conceptual and not empirically validated in this paper; the paper also notes mixed findings for factual/declarative knowledge and states that IVR is not necessarily the ideal medium for teaching factual knowledge.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s10648-020-09586-2

Cites

113 of 113 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 95 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The number of publications on Scopus that refer to VR in combination with learning, education, or training is quickly growing.

    “A literature search shows that the number of publications on Scopus that refer to VR in combination with either learning, education, or training is quickly growing (see Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    The CAMIL predicts that the instructional effectiveness of the embodiment principle would be greater when learning through an IVR lesson compared to a video because learners will generally have a higher sense of presence in IVR.

    “The CAMIL predicts that the instructional effectiveness of the embodiment principle would be greater when learning through an IVR lesson compared to a video because learners will generally have a higher sense of presence in IVR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationcitation

    Media interacts with method in learning.

    “However, the CAMIL builds on evidence that media interacts with method.”
    • Also stated in: § The Theoretical Perspective of CAMIL · plain
      “the CAMIL takes the theoretical perspective that media interacts with method.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Meyer et al. (2019) source

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    • cites Makransky et al. (2020a)

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    • cites Klingenberg et al. (2020)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationreasoning

    Instructional methods based on evidence from research with less immersive media generalize to learning in IVR.

    “The general theoretical framework of the model suggests that instructional methods which are based on evidence from research with less immersive media generalize to learning in IVR.”
    • Also stated in: § The Theoretical Perspective of CAMIL · plain
      “the CAMIL recognizes that motivational and learning theories that have been developed for less immersive media generalize to learning in IVR”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Makransky et al. (2020a) found an interaction between media and method with enactment resulting in significantly better procedural knowledge and transfer in the IVR group, but not in the video group.

    “There was an interaction between media and method with enactment resulting in significantly better procedural knowledge and transfer in the IVR group, but not in the video group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Makransky et al. (2020a)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 26
  • May combine two claims. 22

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The number of research articles in the field of immersive learning is rapidly increasing.

    “Given that the number of research articles in the field of immersive learning is rapidly increasing, we hope that researchers will include measures of the variables included in the CAMIL, as well as the external factors, when conducting research on the use of IVR for learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    IVR is qualitatively different from mixed or augmented reality technologies because these allow the learner to experience the virtual and the real world simultaneously, while IVR completely shuts out the real world, psychologically isolating the learner in the virtual environment.

    “IVR is also qualitatively different from mixed or augmented reality technologies because these allow the learner to experience the virtual and the real world simultaneously, while IVR completely shuts out the real world, psychologically isolating the learner in the virtual environment (Loomis et al. 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Loomis et al. 1999 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Interaction and immersion are limited with lessons presented on a video or PowerPoint, but are greater with IVR or other existing/future immersive technologies.

    “That is, interaction and immersion are limited with lessons presented on a video or PowerPoint, but are greater with IVR or other existing/future immersive technologies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The CAMIL describes how presence and agency result from technological features, and how they predict learning through affective and cognitive processes.

    “Furthermore, the CAMIL describes how these two affordances result from technological features, and how they predict learning through affective and cognitive processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Klingenberg et al. (2020) found a significant interaction between media and methods indicating that the generative learning strategy of teaching significantly improved retention, transfer, and self-efficacy when learning through IVR, but not desktop VR.

    “The authors found a significant interaction between media and methods indicating that the generative learning strategy of teaching significantly improved retention, transfer, and self-efficacy when learning through IVR, but not desktop VR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Klingenberg et al. (2020)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Immersion, control factors, and representational fidelity are important factors for instigating a sense of presence in virtual environments.

    “In summary, the CAMIL regards immersion (positive relation, path 1 in Fig. 2), control factors (positive relation, path 2 in Fig. 2), and representational fidelity (positive relation, path 4 in Fig. 2) as important factors for instigating a sense of presence in virtual environments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ijsselsteijn and Riva 2003

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    • cites Sheridan 1992 source

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    • cites Dalgarno and Lee 2010 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The model is built on previous research that recognizes that affective and cognitive factors play a role in immersive learning.

    “The model is built on previous research (Makransky and Lilleholt 2018;Makransky and Petersen 2019) that recognizes that affective and cognitive factors play a role in immersive learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Makransky and Lilleholt 2018 source

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    • cites Makransky and Petersen 2019

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The six affective and cognitive factors lead to factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge acquisition and knowledge transfer.

    “The model also describes how these factors lead to factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge acquisition and knowledge transfer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Presence and agency are the general psychological affordances of learning in IVR.

    “The CAMIL identifies presence and agency as the general psychological affordances of learning in IVR”
    • Also stated in: § General Overview of the CAMIL · plain
      “The general affordances of learning in IVR are presence and agency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Presence is related to perceiving, and there is an individual component to it.

    “As presence is related to perceiving, there is an individual component to it (i.e., different individuals may experience different amounts of presence in response to the same experience).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Meyer et al. (2019) found an interaction between media and method, where pre-training had a significant positive effect on knowledge retention, transfer, and self-efficacy in IVR but no effect in the video condition.

    “The authors found an interaction between media and method, where pre-training had a significant positive effect on the outcomes of knowledge retention, transfer, and self-efficacy; but no effect was found for any of these variables within the video condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Meyer et al. (2019) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The CAMIL takes the theoretical perspective that media interacts with method.

    “To sum up, the CAMIL takes the theoretical perspective that media interacts with method.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The major factor that distinguishes a VR learning session accessed through HMD and CAVE as compared with a VR session accessed through a desktop computer is the degree of immersion.

    “The major factor that distinguishes a VR learning session accessed through HMD and CAVE as compared with a VR session accessed through a desktop computer is the degree of immersion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cummings and Bailenson 2016 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The other defining factor of an IVR learning experience as compared to more traditional multimedia lessons is the level of interaction that is possible.

    “The other defining factor of an IVR learning experience as compared to more traditional multimedia lessons-for instance those delivered through videos or PowerPoint-is the level of interaction that is possible (Makransky et al. 2020a).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Makransky et al. 2020a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    CAMIL provides a theory of change that describes how it is not the medium of IVR that causes more or less learning, but rather that the instructional method used in an IVR lesson will be specifically effective if it facilitates the unique affordances of the medium.

    “CAMIL provides a theory of change that describes how it is not the medium of IVR that causes more or less learning, but rather that the instructional method used in an IVR lesson will be specifically effective if it facilitates the unique affordances of the medium.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The CAMIL synthesizes existing immersive educational research to describe the process of learning in IVR.

    “The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) synthesizes existing immersive educational research to describe the process of learning in IVR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Little work has been done that synthesizes existing findings into a theoretical framework.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The CAMIL recognizes that motivational and learning theories developed for less immersive media generalize to learning in IVR; however, the model predicts an interaction when the instruction facilitates one of two principle affordances of learning in IVR: presence and agency.

    “Therefore, the CAMIL recognizes that motivational and learning theories that have been developed for less immersive media generalize to learning in IVR; however, the model predicts that there will be an interaction when the instruction facilitates one of two principle affordances of learning in IVR: presence and agency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Learning in IVR is not more effective than learning with video; but incorporating the generative learning strategy of enactment is specifically effective when learning through IVR.

    “The authors concluded that learning in IVR is not more effective than learning with video; but incorporating the generative learning strategy of enactment is specifically effective when learning through IVR because the affordances of presence and agency result in highly engaging experiences which do not necessarily facilitate self-regulated learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The CAMIL distinguishes between three different dimensions of presence: physical, social, and self-presence.

    “Furthermore, the CAMIL distinguishes between three different dimensions of presence including physical, social, and self-presence (Lee 2004;Makransky et al. 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Lee 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Makransky et al. 2017 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    CAMIL posits a potential negative relation between agency and self-regulated learning (path 16).

    “By definition, reflection requires a momentary decoupling from one's activities, which may be undermined by high presence and agency (potentially negative relations; paths 15 and 16 in Fig. 2, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: More agency in the form of activating participants in their own learning process can provide opportunities for self-regulated learning.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Heightened levels of situational interest, intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, embodiment, and self-regulation and lower levels of cognitive load can have positive effects on learning outcomes, as predicted by CAMIL.

    “Heightened levels of situational interest, intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, embodiment, and self-regulation and lower levels of cognitive load can have positive effects on learning outcomes, as predicted by the CAMIL (see Fig. 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Enjoyment which results from intrinsically motivating learning activities positively impacts learning through facilitating the use of flexible, creative learning strategies.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    CAMIL posits a positive relation between embodiment and procedural knowledge, and possibly factual/conceptual knowledge (path 20).

    “Embodiment is especially relevant for developing procedural knowledge (e.g., Kilteni et al. 2013), but may also strengthen neural pathways during factual/conceptual learning, and thus lead to the development of factual and conceptual knowledge (positive relation, path 20 in Fig. 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kilteni et al. 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    IVR is not necessarily the ideal medium for teaching factual knowledge, and the exact mechanisms that cause IVR to be more or less effective for developing factual and conceptual knowledge depend very much on how the IVR lesson is designed.

    “These results suggest that IVR is not necessarily the ideal medium for teaching factual knowledge, and that the exact mechanisms that cause IVR to be more or less effective for developing factual and conceptual knowledge depend very much on how the IVR lesson is designed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If instructional support and learning processes are not emphasized, even the latest technological advancements may have limited instructive value.

    “If instructional support and learning processes are not emphasized, even the latest technological advancements may have limited instructive value.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The effect of novelty is only transient and may never take the place of instructional support.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Makransky et al. (2020a) found that the generative learning strategy of enacting improved procedural knowledge and transfer when used after an IVR simulation, but not when the same lesson was presented as a video.

    “Furthermore, Makransky et al. (2020a) found that the generative learning strategy of enacting improved procedural knowledge and transfer when used after an IVR simulation, but not when the same lesson was presented as a video.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Makransky et al. 2020a

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Emerging technologies are said to progress through different levels of hype, and such expectations are often exaggerated at first due to media coverage and heavy marketing campaigns.

    “In general, emerging technologies are said to progress through different levels of hype (i.e., expectations that surround a technology over time from its initial launch; Fenn and Blosch 2020).Such expectations are often exaggerated at first due to media coverage and heavy marketing campaigns (Fenn and Blosch 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fenn and Blosch 2020

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Younger users are more likely to accept immersive technologies compared to older users.

    “For instance, younger users have been shown to be more likely to accept immersive technologies compared to older users (Suh and Prophet 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Suh and Prophet 2018 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Parong and Mayer (2018) found that an immersive VR lesson was less effective than a PowerPoint lesson for acquiring factual knowledge, but found no significant difference in conceptual knowledge acquisition.

    “Parong and Mayer (2018) found that an immersive VR lesson was less effective than a PowerPoint lesson for acquiring factual knowledge, but they found no significant difference in conceptual knowledge acquisition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Parong and Mayer 2018 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bandura (1977) describes four major sources of information that can increase expectations of personal efficacy, with performance accomplishments strongest, followed by vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states.

    “The CAMIL builds on the work from Bandura (1977), who describes four major sources of information that can increase expectations of personal efficacy.The strongest is performance accomplishments, followed by vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bandura 1977 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Webster (2016) found that VR-based instruction produced higher declarative knowledge learning gain scores than lecture-based instruction.

    “For instance, Webster (2016) found that VR-based instruction produced higher declarative knowledge learning gain scores than lecture-based instruction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Webster 2016 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Makransky et al. (2020a) describe how viewing a science simulation on video led to better factual knowledge acquisition than learning the same content while controlling the interaction and viewing in an IVR simulation, presumably due to extraneous cognitive load.

    “Makransky et al. (2020a) describe how viewing a science simulation on video led to better factual knowledge acquisition than learning the same content while controlling the interaction and viewing in an IVR simulation, presumably due to extraneous CL.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Makransky et al. 2020a

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Cognitive overload occurs when the information to be processed during learning exceeds the limited capacity of working memory.

    “Cognitive load theory (CLT; Sweller et al. 2011) and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML; Mayer 2014b) describe how cognitive overload occurs when the information to be processed during learning exceeds the limited capacity of working memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sweller et al. 2011

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    • cites Mayer 2014b

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    Premisecitation

    Generative learning theory suggests that learning is the process of generating and transferring meaning for stimuli and events from one's background, attitudes, abilities, and experiences.

    “Generative learning theory (Fiorella and Mayer 2016;Wittrock 1974) suggests that learning is the”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Fiorella and Mayer 2016 source

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    • cites Wittrock 1974 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Suitable system attributes can be instrumental in making an IVR system usable.

    “Importantly however, suitable system attributes can be instrumental in making it usable (ISO 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites ISO 2018

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    Premisecitation

    Evidence suggests that when a motoric modality is added to the learning experience, more neural pathways are activated, which results in more learning or memory trace.

    “Evidence suggests that when a motoric modality is added to the learning experience, more neural pathways are activated, which results in more learning or memory trace (Broaders et al. 2007;Goldin-Meadow 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Broaders et al. 2007 source

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    • cites Goldin-Meadow 2011 source

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    Premisecitation

    Richardson et al. (2012) found a medium correlation of 0.31 between GPA and academic self-efficacy, and a correlation of 0.59 between GPA and performance self-efficacy.

    “In their meta-analysis, Richardson et al. (2012) found a medium correlation of 0.31 between GPA and academic self-efficacy (i.e., general perceptions of academic capability), and a correlation of 0.59 between GPA and performance self-efficacy (i.e., perceptions of academic performance capability).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Richardson et al. 2012 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Women are more susceptible to cyber sickness than men.

    “Munafo et al. (2017) found indications of a gender difference in the occurrence of cyber sickness, with women being more susceptible than men.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Munafo et al. 2017 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Embodied cognition suggests that the way we think and make sense of the world depends on our sensorimotor system and bodily interactions with the environment.

    “Embodiment is a central part of embodied cognition, which suggests that the way we think and make sense of the world depends on our sensorimotor system and bodily interactions with the environment (Wilson 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson 2002 source

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    Premisecitation

    Recent reviews and meta-analyses of IVR in education have highlighted challenges facing the research in this field, including not using learning theories and lack of theoretical and methodological rigor.

    “Recent reviews and meta-analyses of IVR in education have highlighted challenges facing the research in this field, including not using learning theories (Radianti et al. 2020;Wu et al. 2020) and lack of theoretical and methodological rigor (Jensen and Konradsen 2018;Radianti et al. 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Radianti et al. 2020

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    • cites Wu et al. 2020

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    • cites Jensen and Konradsen 2018 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Including measures of the variables included in CAMIL and external factors would make it possible to test the paths and relationships depicted in CAMIL and further refine the model.

    “This would make it possible to test the paths and relationships depicted in the CAMIL as well as further refine the model.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Neuroticism and openness to experience influence university students' intentions to adopt online learning programs by influencing their perceived value of online learning.

    “Watjatrakul (2016) found that neuroticism and openness to experience influence university students' intentions to adopt online learning programs by influencing their perceived value of online learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Watjatrakul 2016 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Prior experience and familiarity with IVR makes it possible to investigate novelty effects.

    “Prior experience and familiarity with IVR is also an essential factor to consider as this makes it possible to investigate novelty effects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    CAMIL extends previous research and theory from virtual reality, multimedia, educational psychology, and educational technology to describe how IVR can lead to factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge acquisition, as well as transfer of learning.

    “In conclusion, CAMIL extends previous research and theory from the fields of virtual reality, multimedia, educational psychology, and educational technology, to describe how IVR can lead to factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge acquisition, as well as transfer of learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The model is developed based on empirical research.

    “Since the model is developed based on empirical research, we expect and encourage researchers to empirically test the assumptions and predictions made by the model, and to include other relevant variables.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
44 of 44

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little work has been done that synthesizes existing findings into a theoretical framework.

    “There are recent reviews which summarize this research, but little work has been done that synthesizes the existing findings into a theoretical framework.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Enjoyment which results from intrinsically motivating learning activities positively impacts learning through facilitating the use of flexible, creative learning strategies.

    “Enjoyment which results from intrinsically motivating learning activities is assumed to positively impact learning through facilitating the use of flexible, creative learning strategies as proposed in the CVTAE (path 19 in Fig. 2; Pekrun 2006).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Few empirical studies have specifically tested the paths outlined in CAMIL.

    “Although the CAMIL is based on empirical research end existing educational theories, few empirical studies have specifically tested the paths outlined in the model.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Few studies within the field of immersive learning differentiate between factual, conceptual, procedural knowledge, and transfer.

    “The CAMIL differentiates between factual, conceptual, procedural knowledge, and transfer, but few studies within the field of immersive learning differentiate between these constructs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    IVR systems increase the size of the visual field of view compared to a monitor, which can increase presence.

    “IVR systems increases the size of the visual field of view compared to a monitor which can increase presence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Even when IVR systems are not specifically designed to engage learners in hedonic activities, there is a risk that learners are overwhelmed by the engaging activities they experience in IVR, and the high levels of agency and presence.

    “Even when IVR systems are not specifically designed to engage learners in hedonic activities, there is a risk that learners are overwhelmed by the engaging activities they experience in IVR, and the high levels of agency and presence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    More agency in the form of activating participants in their own learning process can provide opportunities for self-regulated learning.

    “Nevertheless, more agencies in the form of activating participants in their own learning process can also provide opportunities for self-regulated learning.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The effect of novelty is only transient and may never take the place of instructional support.

    “Nevertheless, the effect of novelty is only transient and may never take the place of instructional support.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Level of prior experience with IVR is an important external factor to control for.

    “Consequently, level of prior experience with IVR is an important external factor to control for, as we discuss later in this manuscript.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Immersive lessons are typically situated, which could make it difficult to transfer knowledge to a different situation.

    “however, immersive lessons are also typically situated, which could make it difficult to transfer knowledge to a different situation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    More complex visual representations and details represent better representational fidelity and can lead to higher presence, but may also lead to virtual environments that result in higher extraneous cognitive load and less learning.

    “This is the case because more complex visual representations and details, which represent better representational fidelity and can lead to higher presence, may also lead to virtual environments that result in higher extraneous CL and less learning.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Low usability may result in breaks in presence.

    “Low usability, e.g., by virtue of errors in navigating, may also result in breaks in presence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Low usability may impair users' sense of agency through limiting their control.

    “Likewise, low usability may impair the users' sense of agency through limiting their control.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Learners may possess different degrees of certain traits and dispositions that can moderate the impact of IVR learning interventions.

    “It is also important to recognize that learners may possess different degrees of certain traits and dispositions that can moderate the impact of IVR learning interventions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cyber sickness can diminish learning from IVR by shifting the learners' focus.

    “Cyber sickness is also a factor known to occur for some users of HMDs (Munafo et al. 2017), and can diminish learning from IVR by shifting the learners' focus.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No extensive investigations have been carried out on the influence of personality traits on IVR learning.

    “Although no extensive investigations, to our knowledge, have been carried out with respect to the influence of personality traits on IVR learning, Watjatrakul (2016) found that neuroticism and openness to experience influence university students' intentions to adopt online learning programs by influencing their perceived value of online learning.”
16 of 16

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Traditional 3D creation tools mainly rely on traditional 2D input devices such as mouse, keyboard, and touchpad, which are incompatible with the spatial computing and immersive characteristics of XR devices.

    “Traditional 3D creation tools mainly rely on traditional 2D input devices such as mouse, keyboard, and touchpad, which are incompatible with the spatial computing and immersive characteristics of XR devices (Makransky and Petersen, 2021).”

    From Interface design and interaction optimization for spatial computing 3D content creation and immersive environment generation using Apple Vision Pro (2025) · cites this paper as Makransky and Petersen, 2021

    The ‘Defining Immersive Virtual Reality’ section distinguishes desktop 3D worlds from immersive VR, but does not discuss how traditional 3D creation tools are operated. Searches for mouse, keyboard, touchpad, and desktop 3D modelling found no passage saying those devices are the tools’ main inputs or are incompatible with XR. (LLM, conf=0.74)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The usefulness and effectiveness of virtual reality can be explained by the degree of immersion in a strongly educational environment, which promotes change of attitudes and beliefs.

    “This usefulness and effectiveness can be explained by the degree of immersion in a strongly educational environment, which promotes the change of attitudes and beliefs [17].”

    From Innovative Technology–Based Interventions to Reduce Stigma Toward People With Mental Illness: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [17]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The Klingenberg et al. learning strategy is named inconsistently

    Minor

    The paper first identifies the strategy tested by Klingenberg et al. (2020) as teaching a fellow student, but later identifies it as summarization. Both statements describe the study's generative learning activity.

  • Path 19 is assigned to two different factors

    Minor

    The paper labels path 19 as the relationship between enjoyment and learning, then labels it as the relationship between self-efficacy and learning outcomes. These are different factors, so the same path number is used inconsistently.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 116 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Boyd, J., Barnett, S. W., Bodrova, E., Leong, D. J., & Gomby, D. (2005). Promoting children’s social and emotional development through preschool education. In National Institute for Early Education Research Preschool Policy Brief. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers.
  2. Clark, R. E., & Salomon, G. (1986). Media in teaching. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). Macmillan). New York.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B.
Affiliations
University of Copenhagen (DK)
Corresponding author
  • Makransky, Guido
  • Petersen, Gustav B.
ORCID
Venue
Educational Psychology Review
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2021-01-06
Volume
33
Issue
3
Pages
937-958
ISSN
  • 1040-726X (ISSN-L)
  • 1573-336X
DOI
10.1007/s10648-020-09586-2
OpenAlex
W3119399459
Semantic Scholar
479c155a62550e75d248a7395681abf4bd7712bb
Cited by
1,438
References
116
Citations by year
2026: 569 · 2025: 355 · 2024: 208 · 2023: 172 · 2022: 106 · 2021: 27 · 2013: 1
FWCI
78.67
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Educational Psychology Review (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
Innovationsfonden (SIPROS)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Augmented Reality Applications
Keywords
immersive virtual reality, immersive learning, presence, agency, media affordances, teaching methods, self-efficacy, embodiment, cognitive load, self-regulation, motivation, knowledge acquisition, knowledge transfer, instructional design

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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