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Risk Factors for Parkinson’s Disease: The Leisure World Cohort Study
Abstract
We conducted a case-control study nested within a prospective cohort study of 13,979 residents of Leisure World Laguna Hills, a retirement community in southern California, for etiologic clues for Parkinson's disease (PD). Between 1981 (when first mailed a health survey) and 1998, we identified 395 PD cases from death certificates, hospital discharge diagnoses and a 1992 follow-up questionnaire. Six controls were individually matched on sex, birth date (+/-2 years), vital status and, if dead, death date (+/-1 year) to each case. Baseline characteristics of the 395 cases and 2,320 controls were analyzed as potential PD risk factors. The risk of PD was significantly reduced among smokers, hypertensives, coffee drinkers and alcohol consumers, and significantly increased among those with 3 or more children and with a high intake of total vitamin A and dietary vitamin C. The multivariate odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) were 0.42 (0.22-0.80) for current cigarette smokers of 1+ pack/day, 0.62 (0.48-0.80) for current users of hypertensive medication, 0.71 (0.52-0.95) for coffee drinkers of 2+ cups/day and 0.77 (0.58-1.03) for drinkers of 2+ alcoholic drinks/day. Risk increased with increasing number of children (1.25 for 1, 1.34 for 2 and 1.90 for 3+ children; p for trend = 0.0003). The increased risks among individuals in the highest third of total vitamin A intake and of dietary vitamin C intake were no longer statistically significant after adjusting for the other variables. These findings suggest several environmental factors that may be related to the development of PD and support a multifactorial etiology.
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“An inverse association between coffee consumption and PD risk has been found in several epidemiological studies [110,121,122,123].”
From Effect of Caffeine Consumption on the Risk for Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders: Sex Differences in Human (2020) · cites this paper as [121]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Paganini-Hill, A.
- Venue
- Neuroepidemiology
- Publisher
- S. Karger AG
- Published
- 2001
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 118-124
- ISSN
- 0251-5350 (ISSN-L)
- 1423-0208
- OpenAlex
- W2025540146
- Cited by
- 159
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 4.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Neuroepidemiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute (R01CA032197, CA32197)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Parkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Nuclear Receptors and Signaling
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Keywords
- Parkinson's disease, risk factors, smoking, hypertension, coffee consumption, alcohol consumption, number of children, vitamin A intake, vitamin C intake, multifactorial etiology, environmental risk factors, retirement community residents
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Alcoholism, Ascorbic Acid, Caffeine, California, Catchment Area, Health, Female, Humans, Hypertension, Male, Middle Aged, Parkinson Disease, Prospective Studies, Risk Factors, Smoking, Vitamin A, Cohort Studies, Case-Control Studies
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