Resistant Hypertension, Obesity, Sleep Apnea, and Aldosterone: Theory and Therapy

The Effect of Spironolactone on Morbidity and Mortality in Patients with Severe Heart Failure

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Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT)

The ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group (2002) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.288.23.2981 · Cited by 5,664

Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the losartan intervention for endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): A randomised trial against atenolol

Dahlöf, B., Devereux, R. B., Kjeldsen, S. E., Julius, S., Beevers, G., de Faire, U., Fyhrquist, F., Ibsen, H., Kristiansson, K., Lederballe-Pedersen, O., et al. (2002) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)08089-3 · Cited by 5,407

Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction

Pitt, B., Remme, W., Zannad, F., Neaton, J., Martinez, F., Roniker, B., Bittman, R., Hurley, S., Kleiman, J., & Gatlin, M. (2003) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa030207 · Cited by 4,941

Insulin Resistance in Essential Hypertension

Ferrannini, E., Buzzigoli, G., Bonadonna, R., Giorico, M. A., Oleggini, M., Graziadei, L., Pedrinelli, R., Brandi, L., & Bevilacqua, S. (1987) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm198708063170605 · Cited by 2,344

Hypertension and associated metabolic abnormalities–the role of insulin resistance and the sympathoadrenal system.

Reaven, G. M., Lithell, H., & Landsberg, L. (1996) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199602083340607 · Cited by 1,435

Obesity and Systemic Oxidative Stress: Clinical Correlates of Oxidative Stress in The Framingham Study

Keaney, J. F., Larson, M. G., Vasan, R. S., Wilson, P. W. F., Lipinska, I., Corey, D., Massaro, J. M., Sutherland, P., Vita, J. A., & Benjamin, E. J. (2003) · Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology · doi:10.1161/01.atv.0000058402.34138.11 · Cited by 1,304

Regional adiposity and morbidity.

Kissebah, A. H., & Krakower, G. R. (1994) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.1994.74.4.761 · Cited by 1,132

Original Papers. Success and Predictors of Blood Pressure Control in Diverse North American Settings: The Antihypertensive and Lipid‐Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT)

Cushman, W. C., Ford, C. E., Cutler, J. A., Margolis, K. L., Davis, B. R., Grimm, R. H., Black, H. R., Hamilton, B. P., Holland, J., Nwachuku, C., et al. (2002) · The Journal of Clinical Hypertension · doi:10.1111/j.1524-6175.2002.02045.x · Cited by 979

Population-Based Study of Sleep-Disordered Breathing as a Risk Factor for Hypertension

Young, T. B. (1997) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.1997.00440360178019 · Cited by 967

Serum sex hormone levels in different severity of male adult obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome in East Asians

Dong, J., Chen, X., Xiao, Y., Zhang, R., Niu, X., & Kong, W. (2015) · Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology [Medical Sciences] · doi:10.1007/s11596-015-1469-3 · Cited by 4

Hypertension

Waeber, B., Brunner, H.-R., Burnier, M., & Cohn, J. N. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-84628-715-2_89 · Cited by 4

The Adrenergic Nervous System Conversing With the Adrenal Cortex

Pratt, J. H. (2006) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/01.hyp.0000244561.84382.df · Cited by 4

Approach to a case of secondary hypertension

Garg, N., Bhatia, T., & Jaiswal, A. K. (2013) · Clinical Queries Nephrology · doi:10.1016/j.cqn.2013.04.004 · Cited by 3

Hypertension: From Epidemiology to Therapeutics

Velasco, M., & Israili, Z. H. (2012) · International Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1155/2012/908431 · Cited by 3

Evaluation of the left ventricle longitudinal deformity using myocardial-tracking signals in severely obese adolescents

Balderrábano-Saucedo, N., del Rio, B., Navarrete-Rodriguez, E. M., Berber, A. C., & Méndez, N. (2015) · Cardiology in the Young · doi:10.1017/s1047951115001298 · Cited by 3

Impaired aldosterone response to the saline infusion test in patients with resistant hypertension and obstructive sleep apnea

Sołtysiak, M., Miazgowski, T., Jaroszyńska, E., Janowska, A., & Widecka, K. (2015) · Arterial Hypertension · doi:10.5603/ah.2015.0003 · Cited by 3

Cardiovascular-derived therapeutic peptidomimetics in cardiovascular disease

Litmanovich, A., Moady, G., Saad, M., Blumberg, Y., Ertracht, O., & Qvit, N. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820141-1.00011-x · Cited by 3

Childhood Hypertension: Epidemiology, Etiology, Target Organ Damage, and Consequences

Lurbe, E., & Simonetti, G. D. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-52972-0_49 · Cited by 3

Resistant Hypertension: Neurohumoral Aspects

Rossi, G. P. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-88-470-5415-8_2 · Cited by 2

Belly fat and resistant hypertension

Jordan, J., & Grassi, G. M. (2010) · Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1097/hjh.0b013e328339b8d9 · Cited by 2

DEPRESSION ASSOCIATED CO-MORBID CARDIOVASCULAR AND METABOLIC COMPLICATIONS

Radhakrishnan, M., Devadoss, T., Dilip, P., Gautam, B., Jindal, A., & Bhatt, S. (2010) · Cited by 2

Relationship between Vitamin D Status and Blood Pressure, Age, Physical Activity, and Nutritional Status in Saudi Males and Females

Alsedairy, S., Albadr, N. A., Bekhaeit, Z., Binobead, M., Aldubaykhi, H., & Aljurbua, T. (2018) · Novel Techniques in Nutrition & Food Science · doi:10.31031/ntnf.2018.02.000538 · Cited by 3

[Progress in clinical research of REM-related obstructive sleep apnea].

Zhang, X., Li, X., Chen, G., & Ge, Y. (2022) · PubMed Central · doi:10.13201/j.issn.2096-7993.2022.02.015 · Cited by 2

Resistant Hypertension

Elliott, W. J. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-03961-1.50062-3 · Cited by 2

Obesity and Hypertension: Etiology and the Effects of Diet, Bariatric Surgery, and Antiobesity Drugs

Elattar, S., Chand, S., Salem, A. M., Abdulfattah, A., Bassiony, M. A. A., Frishman, W. H., & Aronow, W. S. (2025) · Cardiology in Review · doi:10.1097/crd.0000000000000937 · Cited by 1

Prevalencia de la hipertensión arterial según los distintos componentes del síndrome metabólico y su vínculo con ellos

Paragano, A. J., Machado, R. A., Abdala, A., Cordero, D. J., Angel, A., Grasiosi, J. C., Magallanes, C. H., & Esper, R. J. (2025) · Revista Argentina de Cardiología · doi:10.7775/rac.v77i4.2383 · Cited by 1

Low fiber intake increase risk of Diabetes mellitus in overweight people

Permanasari, Y., & Rachmawati, R. (2012) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · doi:10.22435/hsji.v2i1 · Cited by 1

Primary Aldosteronism: Molecular Mechanisms and Diagnosis

Rossi, G. P., & Lenzini, L. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0509-6_1 · Cited by 1

Importancia de la presión arterial diastólica en relación con la edad

Franklin, S. S. (2007) · Hipertensión y Riesgo Vascular · doi:10.1016/s1889-1837(07)71692-6 · Cited by 1

Resistant hypertension: a dangerous and challenging clinical situation

O’Connell, J. L., Guedes, N. R., Farina, P. H. R., Silva, G., Roever, L., & de Almeida, R. P. (2019) · MOJ Gerontology & Geriatrics · doi:10.15406/mojgg.2019.04.00207 · Cited by 1

The Health Burden of Obesity

Lin, E. A., Barlow, G. M., & Mathur, R. (2015) · Endocrine updates · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2146-1_2 · Cited by 1

Hypertension and Diabetes

Majewski, C., & Bakris, G. L. (2019) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-27316-7_5-2 · Cited by 1

Differential Gene Expression Profile in Essential Hypertension

Yang, P. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/29645 · Cited by 1

Apneia do sono e hipertensão arterial sistêmica Sleep apnea and systemic arterial hypertension

Pedrosa, R. P., Cabral, M. M., Pedrosa, L. D. C., Celestino, D., Filho, S., & Lorenzi‐Filho, G. (2009) · Cited by 1

Hypertension in the Elderly

Franklin, S. S. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-03961-1.50056-8 · Cited by 1

Sympathetic vascular tone in human obesity

Correia, M. (2007) · doi:10.17077/etd.v54kf0if · Cited by 1

Hiperaldosteronismo primario subclínico

Pérez, S. C. (2004) · Hipertensión y Riesgo Vascular · doi:10.1016/s1889-1837(04)71828-0 · Cited by 1

Evaluation and Treatment of Hypertension

Nguyen, Q. P. H., & Plodkowski, R. A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95655-8_14 · Cited by 1

Resistant Hypertension

Setaro, J. F. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4160-3053-9.50049-4 · Cited by 1

Resistant Hypertension

Calhoun, D. A. (2005) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-7216-0258-5.50149-6 · Cited by 1

Aldosterone and Cardiovascular Diseases

Tomaschitz, A., & Pilz, S. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0509-6_12

Apneia obstrutiva do sono em pacientes com hipertensão arterial refratária: avaliação da prevalência, intensidade e possíveis mecanismos fisiopatológicos.

Pimenta, E. (2012) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.98.2012.tde-07122012-113447

Hipertensión arterial resistente al tratamiento

Olivieri, A. O., Akopian, M., Manglano, X., & Feldstein, C. A. (2007) · Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México)

From Abdominal Adiposity to Hypertension: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications

Rocchini, A. P. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444318456.ch33

Clinical Characteristics of Young-Onset and Medical Treatment-Requiring Hypertension Identified By Targeted Screening in University Health Check-Up

Endo, Y., Serizawa, F., Kato, T., Toyama, H., Ejima, Y., Sato, A., Kurosawa, S., Hasegawa, Y., Hida, W., & Matsubara, M. (2011) · Clinical and Experimental Hypertension · doi:10.3109/10641963.2011.577482

INCREASE IN TREATMENT-REFRACTORY HYPERTENSION: PROGRESS IN CURRENT TREATMENT BY PRIMARY CARE

Egan, B. M. (2011) · Hipertensión y Riesgo Vascular · doi:10.1016/j.hipert.2011.09.004

Hypertension and the Kidney: New Avenues for an Improved Management of Hypertension in Renal Diseases: Introduction

Burnier, M. (2007) · Seminars in Nephrology · doi:10.1016/j.semnephrol.2007.07.008

Prevalence and Association of Hypertension with the Different Components of the Metabolic Syndrome

Paragano, A. J., Machado, R. A., Abdala, A., Cordero, D. J., Ángel, A., Grasiosi, J. C., Magallanes, C. H., Esper, R. J., & Coronado, M. (2009)

Treatment: special conditions

Black, H. R. (2014) · Journal of the American Society of Hypertension · doi:10.1016/j.jash.2014.12.006

For information on reprint requests of more than 101 and commercial reprints contact

Barbour, L. A., Cobin, R. H., DeGroot, L. J., Glinoer, D., Mandel, S. J., & Edwards, H. A. (2008)

Primary Aldosteronism: Rare or Common Condition in Hypertensive Patients and Normotensive Individuals?

Rossi, G. P., Seccia, T. M., & Caielli, P. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-88-470-2601-8_4

Title: Case Detection, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Patients with Primary Aldosteronism: An

Funder, J. W., Carey, R. M., Fardella, C., Gómez-Sánchez, C. E., Mantero, F., Stowasser, M., Young, W. F., & Montori, V. M. (2008)

Add insult to injury: An unusual cause of renovascular hypertension Da lesão à disfunção: um caso invulgar de hipertensão renovascular

Pimentel, A., Cabrita, A., Jerónimo, T. M., Ministro, A., Bernardo, I., & Neves, P. L. (2014)

Clinical condition of metabolic syndrome. 3 Metabolic syndrome and aldosterone

長瀬, 美., & 藤田, 敏. (2006) · Nihon Naika Gakkai Zasshi · doi:10.2169/naika.95.1726

Up to Date on Tinnitus

Bahmad, F. (2011) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/1506

Obstructive sleep apnea and hypertension: Interactions and clinical implications

Kapa, S., Gami, A. S., & Somers, V. K. (2011) · Informa Healthcare eBooks · doi:10.3109/9781420020885.011

Exercise and Hypertension

Davy, K. P., & Gentile, C. L. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-03961-1.50042-8

Hipertensão arterial secundária

Rodrigues, C. J. D. O., & Tavares, A. (2007) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)

Hypertension in the Dialysis Patient

Sinha, A. D. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-6436-9_7

The Implications of Undiagnosed Obstructive Sleep Apnea on Resting Hemodynamic Variables in Cardiac Rehabilitation Patients

Shafer, B. M., Hargens, T. A., Aron, A., Newsome, L. J., Edwards, E. S., & Womack, C. J. (2014) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000494307.19717.cb

Development and application of a real-time PCR method to detect selected single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with hypertension in a black South African population

Toit, E. D. (2014)

Normal HPA Axis and Rhythm, Exemplary Sleep Disorders

Buckley, T. M., Schatzberg, A. F., & Sleep, S. (2005)

Sleep Disturbances/Sleep Apnea

Parati, G., Lombardi, C., Narkiewicz, K., Wolf, J., & Ochoa, J. E. (2017) · Updates in hypertension and cardiovascular protection · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-59918-2_18

Hypertension and Diabetes

Majewski, C., & Bakris, G. L. (2018) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-27316-7_5-1

Role of Extracellular Fluid Volume in Inducing or Aggravating Obstructive Sleep Apnea-hypopnea in Patients with Resistant Hypertension

Friedman, O. (2010) · TSpace (University of Toronto)

The Role of Perivascular Fat in Raising Blood Pressure in Obesity and Diabetes

Aghamohammadzadeh, R., & Heagerty, A. M. (2018) · Updates in hypertension and cardiovascular protection · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75310-2_20

Resistant Hypertension

Acelajado, M. C., & Calhoun, D. A. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4557-0101-8.00031-x

The pathophysiology of obesity hypoventilation syndrome

Tulaimat, A. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815290-4.00007-5

Pathophysiological Mechanisms Implicated in Organ Damage and Cardiovascular Events

Aghamohammadzadeh, R., & Heagerty, A. M. (2020) · Updates in hypertension and cardiovascular protection · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-47801-8_14

Integrating Health and Energy Efficiency in Multi-Family Buildings

Rotondo, J., Energy Efficiency Office. Federal Energy Management Program Office USDOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Keene, K., & Wang, N. (2020) · doi:10.2172/1646977

Hypertonie und Ernährung: Positionspapier der Österreichischen Gesellschaft für Ernährung (ÖGE)

Dorner, T. E., Genser, D., Krejs, G. J., Slany, J., Watschinger, B., Ekmekçioğlu, C., & Rieder, A. (2013) · Herz

Hypertension and Diabetes

Majewski, C., & Bakris, G. L. (2020) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-36694-0_5

Sleep Apnea

Parati, G., Lombardi, C., & Ochoa, J. E. (2016) · Updates in hypertension and cardiovascular protection · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-34141-5_5

Hypertension and Diabetes

Majewski, C., & Bakris, G. L. (2018) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44433-8_5

Hypertension

Flynn, C. A., & Bakris, G. L. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-0715-7_49

Endocrine Hypertension

Harbuz-Miller, I., Woodman, R., & Lastra, G. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.95896-3

Importancia de la presión arterial diastólica en relación con la edad

Franklin, S. S. (2007) · Hipertensión · doi:10.1016/s0212-8241(07)72451-9

Prevalence of Obesity in Adult Hypertensive Patients and its Effect on Antihypertension Drugs Polypharmacy in Primary Health Care Clinics in Benghazi

Saleh, A., & Ebsat, A. (2024) · The Scientific Journal of University of Benghazi · doi:10.37376/sjuob.v37i1.5947

Association between Sleep Duration and Hypertension in Middle-Aged and Elderly Chinese

王, 琅. (2025) · Nursing Science · doi:10.12677/ns.2025.141024

Étude pangénomique de la variabilité dans le nombre de copies liée à l’hypertension artérielle et ses anomalies métaboliques associées

Ivanga, M. (2014) · doi:10.71781/26355

Evaluation of reflux in the pre- and postoperative periods in patients undergoing mini (one-anastomosis) gastric bypass due to morbid obesity

Yetim, A. I., Gökler, C., Turan, Ü., Aydede, Y. S., Yugruk, A., Yener, K., & Kilic, V. (2026) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-025-04253-3

Endocrine hypertension in 2025: how AI and multiomics are revolutionizing detection

Fuentes‐Mendoza, J. M., Concepción‐Zavaleta, M. J., Mendoza-Godoy, J. J., Aldave, J. E. Q., Morón-Siguas, J. C., & Paz‐Ibarra, J. (2026) · Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy · doi:10.1080/14779072.2026.2634025

Contribution à l'étude de l'effet de la substance P sur la sécrétion d'aldostérone dans la glande surrénale humaine normale

Wils, J. (2018) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/9e27a219zc12bz4357z92c7z19b75278e344

Evolução da obesidade da infância até a vida adulta entre mulheres da fila de espera para a cirurgia bariátrica pelo sistema único de saúde

de Souza, N. P. P. (2007) · Aleph UCLA Undergraduate Research Journal for the Humanities and Social Sciences

PERIVASCULAR ADIPOSE TISSUE AND VESSEL CONTRACTILITY IN HEALTH AND OBESITY

Aghamohammadzadeh, R. (2014) · Research Explorer (The University of Manchester)

Resistant hypertension, obesity, sleep apnea, and aldosterone: Theory and therapy. Hypertension 2004

Goodfriend, T. L., & Calhoun, D. A. (2016)

Sleep Apnea, Aldosterone, and Resistant Hypertension

Pimenta, E., Calhoun, D. A., & Oparil, S. (2009) · Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2008.02.004 · Cited by 68

Abstract 2464: Severity of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Dependent upon Aldosterone Status in Subjects with Resistant Hypertension

Gonzaga, C. C., Gaddam, K. K., Pimenta, E., & Calhoun, D. A. (2008) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circ.118.suppl_18.s_730-d

Severity of obstructive sleep apnea dependent upon aldosterone status in subjects with resistant hypertension

Gonzaga, C. C., Gaddam, K. K., Pimenta, E., & Calhoun, D. A. (2008) · Circulation

371 SLEEP APNEA AND HYPERALDOSTERONISM IN PATIENTS WITH RESISTANT HYPERTENSION

Pratt-Ubunama, M. N., Nishizaka, M., Harding, S. M., & Calhoun, D. A. (2005) · Journal of Investigative Medicine · doi:10.2310/6650.2005.00006.370