Ancient Formulas to Strengthen the Nation: Healing the Modern Chinese Body with theTreatise on Cold Damage

In the paper

“Like Zhang Taiyan, with whom he had a very close relationship, he dismissed Warm Illness scholarship. My humble ambition is to help Chinese medicine flourish, and therefore I cannot avoid to correct false theories…. The books of Wang Mengying, Wu Jutong, Ye Tianshi are filled with flaws and errors.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  In “The Critique of Speculation” (page not provided), Karchmer says Yun Tieqiao openly disliked the Warm Illness current and its leading figures, and describes their writings as a “flowing poison.” This supports the paraphrase that Yun dismissed the scholarship, although the passage does not reproduce the quoted “flaws and errors” wording. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites [25] Karchmer, 2013, ‘The Excitations and Suppressions of the Times: Locating the Emotions in the Liver in Modern Chinese Medicine’, Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry source

In the paper

“Yun was particularly impressed with Kitamura Tadahiro 喜多村直寛, who he believed had surpassed all Chinese writers in articulating a solution to one of the thorniest and most important theoretical questions surrounding The Treatise: what are the six jing 六經?”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Fang Youzhi: Re-imagining the Body section discusses interpretations of the six jing, and Responses to Ke Qin in China and Japan discusses Japanese physicians’ influence. Neither the supplied passages nor searches for Yun Tieqiao and Kitamura Tadahiro establish Yun’s opinion of Kitamura or the claimed comparison with Chinese writers. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites [32] Scheid, 2013, ‘Transmitting Chinese Medicine: Changing Perceptions of Body, Pathology, and Treatment in Late Imperial China’, Asian Medicine: Tradition and Modernity sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Yun Tieqiao notes that Chinese commentators have generally been in agreement about the nature and the location of the three yang jing - Taiyang corresponds to the exterior, Yangming to the interior, and Shaoyang to the half-exterior, half-interior - but have been almost silent on the three yin jing.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  In “Fang Youzhi: Re-imagining the Body” (page unavailable), the paper associates greater yang with the exterior and lesser yang with a ‘half exterior half interior’ boundary, supporting part of the sentence’s description. It does not attribute to Yun Tieqiao the claim that Chinese commentators generally agreed about the three yang jing or were almost silent about the three yin jing; it also describes yang brightness as the body shell proper rather than simply the interior. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites [32] Scheid, 2013, ‘Transmitting Chinese Medicine: Changing Perceptions of Body, Pathology, and Treatment in Late Imperial China’, Asian Medicine: Tradition and Modernity sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“In the early 20th century, diseases of depletion seemed to be rampant in Chinese society. Old diseases, such as spermatorrhea, became ubiquitous in the mainstream press; new diseases, such as neurasthenia, were embraced by medical professionals”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [3] Deng, 1955, ‘Wenbing xueshuo de fasheng yu chengchang’温病学说的发生与成长 ( ‘The Origin and Development of Warm Disorders Theory’), Zhongyi zazhi 中医杂志 (Journal of Chinese Medicine)

In the paper

“As the new state pushed doctors to come to a consensus about professional standards, The Treatise was recognized as one of the four canons of Chinese medicine but not its central text.”

In the paper

“From 1909 to 1921, he translated and published at least 83 titles, the majority of which were Japanese works on Western medicine.30”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [30] Morris, 2004 source

In the paper

“I encountered an antique dealer selling dozens of old Japanese books, including more than 20 about The Treatise. I bought them all, in order to glimpse the origins of Eastern Medicine 東洋醫學. I found them clear and straightforward, superior than our various commentators, such as Chen [Xiuyuan] and Yu [Chang]….31”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [31] Scheid, 2007

In the paper

“In 1925, Yun Tieqiao opened a Chinese medicine correspondence school, using a series of textbooks that he wrote himself.”

In the paper

“But he was also dismayed by the scholarship on The Treatise, which he expressed in a preface to Lu Yuanlei’s opus, A Modern Interpretation of the Treatise on Cold Damage.”

In the paper

“Writing in 1929 as a major political crisis with Western medicine was coming to a head, Lu Yuanlei reminds his readers of the importance of The Treatise in the struggle with this new competitor.”

In the paper

“Yang Shoujing 楊守敬, one of the first Chinese political envoys to Japan, played an important role in this new intellectual exchange, collecting more than 30,000 Japanese texts. His 1884 publication of thirteen Japanese medical texts in a volume called The Medical Collection of the Ancestral Virtues Hall 《聿修堂醫學叢書》 marked the first time Japanese Kampo medical texts became available for a Chinese a”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [29] 2011, ‘Comparative Research on Ancient Medical Book Evidence from China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam’ (中日韩越古医书数据的比较研究)

In the paper

“Perhaps more importantly, he believed that only a small number of diseases fell into the Warm Illness rubric. If his contemporaries would stop misdiagnosing so many conditions as Warm Illnesses, they would soon recognize that Zhang Zhongjing’s work already contained the treatments they needed.27”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [27] Lee, 1999, ‘Diagnosis Postponed: Shenjing Shuairuoand the Transformation of Psychiatry in Post-Mao China’, Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry source

In the paper

“Chinese interest in Japanese Kampo writings developed a little later in the 1920s, in part due to the Kampo revival movement that was gaining momentum at just this moment.”

In the paper

“In a passage from A Collection of Insights from Discussing Medicine in the Reading Room 《籀簃談醫—得集》, Zhang Shanlei 張山雷 provides a typical example of this sort of claim.”

In the paper

“Like Yao Shichen, Lu Yuanlei 陸淵雷 was dismayed by the great popularity of the Warm Illness approach. For him, the future of Chinese medicine lay in the return to The Treatise.”

In the paper

“The two camps were equally fearful of the other’s treatment, but they perceived the dangers differently.”

In the paper

“But whereas Warm Illness scholars tended to see gaps and limitations in the Cold Damage perspective that called for a fresh approach, adherents to the Cold Damage current saw a decaying scholarly tradition that was plagued by errors of transmission and philosophical distortion.”

In the paper

“Zhu Weiju 祝味菊, one of the most respected clinicians from this period, gave a detailed accounting of this process.”

In the paper

“But Fei Boxiong’s mild-acting prescriptions were not just for the rich. They were generally inexpensive, appealing to both wealthy patients whose chronic conditions needed long-term treatment and local peasants who could only afford a short course of treatment.8”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [8] Lu, 2008 (1931)

In the paper

“Xu Dachun 徐大椿 (1693 – 1771), a rough contemporary of Ye Tianshi, exemplified the influence of this movement in medical discourse. In Treatise on the Origin and Development of Medicine 《醫學源流論》, he rejected the Ming dynasty celebration of the four masters in emphatic terms.”

In the paper

“In 1911, Wada Keijuro launched the revival movement with a vigorous defense of Kampo medicine in his treatise, The Hammer of the Medical World.”

In the paper

“Indeed, following the Sino-Japanese War of 1895, Japan was better know as a source of biomedical knowledge, attracting numerous students to Japan’s biomedical schools in the early 1900s.”

In the paper

“The following passage by Yao Shichen 姚世琛 captures the frustration of a Cold Damage advocate, feeling surrounded by timid Jiangnan colleagues. In the preface to Records of Experiments with Canonical Formulas 《經方實驗錄》, the influential Republican era book by Cao Yingfu 曹穎甫 on clinical applications of The Treatise, he directs his vitriol at the key Warm Illness innovators and their pampered patients.”

In the paper

“Yun Tieqiao also argued that treatments for Warm Illnesses are already present in Zhang Zhongjing’s work. He directed his students to passages from Zhang Zhongjing’s other text, The Synopsis of Formulas from the Golden Casket 《金匱要略》, where the second chapter contained therapies for dampness 濕 and heatstroke 暍, conditions that he considered to be true Warm Illnesses.26”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [26] Kleinman, 1986

In the paper

“Wu Youke’s critique of the Cold Damage tradition was only slowly taken up, his therapeutic innovations generally considered too piecemeal to constitute an alternative tradition.”

In the paper

“For the Warm Illness proponents, Cold Damage herbs and formulas were too powerful for frail, southern bodies. According to the popular expression, most Jiangnan physicians viewed “Ephedra and Cinnamon twigs like they were snakes and scorpions.”11”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [11] Xu, 2008 (1757), Yixue yuanliu lun医学源流论 ( Treatise on the Origin and Development of Medicine)

In the paper

“Zhang Taiyan considered The Treatise to be China’s greatest medical text and the basis for a flourishing medical tradition that could withstand the challenge of Western medicine. “The only reason that Chinese medicine is superior to Western medicine is The Treatise on Cold Damage.”21”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [21] Fang, 2012, Barefoot Doctors and Western Medicine in China source

In the paper

“The answer that major figures of the Warm Illness movement have given was straightforward: the inadequacies of the Cold Damage therapies necessitated these innovations.”

In the paper

“Leading doctors in the Jiangnan area challenged the deeply held beliefs in the delicacy of southern constitutions and argued for a more robust form of medical practice.”

In the paper

“Zhang Taiyan tackled this problem in an essay, entitled “Yangming Illness Is Warm Illness” 《論陽明病即溫熱病》, arguing that the section of The Treatise on the Yangming jing already contained an analysis of and therapeutic approach for Warm Illnesses.24”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [24] Howland, 1996, Borders of Chinese Civilization: Geography and History at Empire’s End, Asia-Pacific: Culture, Politics, and Society source

In the paper

“The next major innovator in the Warm Illness current, the famous Qing dynasty physician, Ye Tianshi (1667-1746), was actually a careful reader of Ke Qin, one of the great Qing scholars of The Treatise on Cold Damage.16 An eclectic practitioner and virtuoso clinician, Ye Tianshi also read Wu Youke’s treatise and adopted some of his ideas.17”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [16] Zhang, 2009
• Not checked yetcites [17] Zhu, 2005, Shanghan zhinan伤寒质难 ( Interrogating Difficulties Concerning the Treatise on Cold Damage)

In the paper

“Zhu’s “eight principles” has become a standard feature of textbook Chinese medicine and is now called “eight principles pattern differentiation 八綱辨證.””

In the paper

“In 1950, Zhu Weiju published his major opus, Interrogating Difficulties Concerning the Treatise on Cold Damage 《傷寒質難》. It was the last and perhaps most radical book by an elite Republican era medical reformer.”

In the paper

“He came to Shanghai in 1917, and, as described above, was initially perplexed by the medical conventions he encountered.”

In the paper

“Yun Tieqiao notes that Ke Qin, the great evidential scholar and Chinese physician, came closest to making similar claims. But he scornfully dismisses the whole history of Chinese commentary on The Treatise for its muddle-headedness.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] Shapiro, 1998, ‘The Puzzle of Spermatorrhea in Republican China’, Positions source

In the paper

“As a young man in Sichuan, he was exposed to a variety of medical influences, first learning Chinese medicine with his father, later studying Western medicine at a military medicine academy for two years, and ultimately travelling to Japan for one year to learn about their medical system.”

In the paper

“It is a mistake to use “The Discourse on Heat” to interpret The Treatise on Cold Damage. It is a mistake on a mistake to use “the meridians” to interpret The Treatise…. To use qi transformation to interpret The Treatise is make another mistake on top of the previous mistakes…. And to use exterior and interior, depletion and repletion to explain The Treatise, like Kitamura Tadahiro 喜多村直寛, who says”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [38]

In the paper

“By the next day, Boyuan had stabilized; a week later his fever was gone; one month later he had made a full recovery.39”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [39]

In the paper

“Taiyang is the initial response; shaoyang is an unhelpful response; yangming is an excessive response; taiyin and shaoyin are both an insufficient response; jueyin is the last response.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [42]

In the paper

“Xu was reluctant. Believing his son was dying of a Warm Illness and knowing Zhu Weiju’s proclivity for Cold Damage formulas, he feared that Zhu’s treatment would be the final blow. But with his son’s life seemingly beyond hope, he finally agreed.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [39]

In the paper

“The resources for these efforts, already considerably less then what was being budgeted for Western medicine, were divided between developing medical schools and hospitals for Chinese medicine while also pursuing Mao’s vision of an “integrated medicine 中西醫結合,” a program in which doctors of Western medicine would receive training in Chinese medicine to help create a “new medicine.””

In the paper

“But Zhu considered this allegiance to the number six arbitrary, arguing that there are only five basic pathological responses to contagious disease.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [42]

In the paper

“Zhu and Xu’s competing medical philosophies were put to the test when Xu’s son, Xu Boyuan 徐伯遠, became gravely ill (perhaps with typhoid fever) at the age of nineteen. Despite meticulous medical attention from the father, Boyuan grew sicker each day, until he was in critical condition.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [39]

In the paper

“By 1940, when Lu Yuanlei was producing a new textbook for his course on The Treatise, he argued that the six jing were simply six major constellations of symptoms, rejecting the explanation of Kitamura Tadahiro that his teacher Yun Tieqiao had found so apt just 15 years earlier.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [38]

In the paper

“For example, Zhu Weiju argued that The Treatise was a guide to the treatment of “externally contracted 外感” diseases, in particular typhoid.”

In the paper

“True to his nickname, Aconite Zhu’s first prescription contained a large dose of the very hot and toxic herb, Aconiti Radix lateralis praeparata 附子. Zhu Weiju stayed by Xu Boyuan’s side throughout a difficult night.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [39]

In the paper

“He had argued that the six jing of The Treatise had no underlying reality, rather they merely represented six fundamental constellations of symptoms that one observes in externally contracted illnesses.”

In the paper

“In the aftermath of this case, Xu Xiaopu was so awed with Zhu Weiju’s clinical abilities and disappointed with his own failures that he effectively “converted” to the Cold Damage school. Both of his sons became disciples of Zhu Weiju, and he went on to become one of the most respected pediatricians in Shanghai, skillfully marshaling the very Cold Damage formulas he had once feared, helping”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [39]

In the paper

“A Warm Illness advocate, Xu Xiaopu believed that the “pure yang 純陽” of the child must not be disturbed by the use of warming herbs.”

In the paper

“He then goes one to provide an explanation for how the “stages” are related to the relative strength of the patient’s “orthodox qi 正氣” and the pathogen’s “heterodox qi 邪氣.””

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [42]

In the paper

“The Treatise never uses the words six jing. Rather it discusses the three yin and three yang to mark exterior and interior, cold and hot, deficiency and repletion. Therefore it has nothing to do with the organs or the meridians…”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Scheid, 2015, ‘The History of Chinese Medicine, 1890–2010’ source

In the paper

“For all externally contracted diseases, orthodox qi must mount a response, as long as there is excitation caused by some organic pathogen 有機之邪. The tendency of that response will never fall outside five stages. The symptoms of the so-called six jing also never exceed the boundaries of the five stages.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [42]

In the paper

“Some reformist doctors, such as Lu Yuanlei, a student of Yun Tieqiao, were inspired by Yumoto and the Kampo revival movement. He celebrated Yumoto’s work, both to challenge biomedical doctors who looked to Japan as a model for the abolishment of traditional medicine and to remind the Chinese medicine profession that its most valuable legacy was based on The Treatise.35”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Shapiro, 2003, ‘How Different Are Western and Chinese Medicine? The Case of Nerves’ source

In the paper

“According to Lu Bingkui 呂炳奎, there were roughly ten times as many doctors of Chinese medicine to doctors of Western medicine in 1949. By the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976, the two professions were at numerical parity.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [47]

In the paper

“Zhu critiques Lu Yuanlei for not going far enough in his discourse on the six jing, for lacking “innovation ” and failing to free himself from the “constraints of the six jing 六經藩籬.””

In the paper

“This radicalization was strongly shaped by Yumoto Kyushin’s 湯本求真 influential book, Sino-Japanese Medicine 《皇漢醫學》, published in 1927 (translated into Chinese in 1928). This text was a major event in the revival of Kampo medicine in Japan and became the most widely read Japanese medical text in China.”

In the paper

“Although the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) came to power espousing “the unity of Western medicine and Chinese medicine 中西醫團結,” its policies in the early 1950s focused primarily on the rapid expansion of the biomedical profession.44”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [44]

In the paper

“Zhu Weiju took this effort to find equivalences between The Treatise and biomedical disease conditions a step further, naming the first four chapters of his book, Interrogating Difficulties Concerning the Treatise on Cold Damage, after the biomedicine stages of infection: incubation stage, prodromal stage, illness stage, and convalescence stage.”

In the paper

“The Cold Damage 傷寒 referred to in The Treatise on Cold Damage 《傷寒論》 has a completely different connotation than the Western medicine term “typhoid fever 傷寒.” We must be clear about this point.50”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [50]

In the paper

“Likewise, the editors have emphasized a more conservative definition of the six jing, rejecting biomedical explanations and emphasizing the links to The Inner Canon.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [51]

In the paper

“He acknowledges the important connections between the six jing and the 12 major meridians, the viscera (or organ) system, and to a lesser extent the eight principles, rejecting the most speculative claims – that the six jing are the Six Climatic Qi – and the most empirical – Lu Yuanlei’s assertion that they correspond to six fundamental syndromes.52”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [52]

In the paper

“For example the fifth edition, the most highly regarded of all the editions, adamantly rejects any attempt to equate typhoid fever with Cold Damage.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [50]

In the paper

“First published in 1960 and then updated in 1964, 1972, 1978, 1984, and 1996, the national textbooks have been one of the great achievements of the Chinese medicine profession in the Communist period, creating a standardized curriculum for the state-run colleges of Chinese medicine.”

In the paper

“The six jing are the framework for pattern recognition and treatment determination with regards to The Treatise on Cold Damage. It is based on the six jing differentiation of patterns found in “The Discourse on Heat” in The Inner Canon, but it represents an advance over them.51”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [51]

In the paper

“As Yun Tieqiao remarked, “with regards to the reform of medicine, there is no other path than the mixing [of Chinese medicine] with Western medicine.”49”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [49]

In the paper

“In Interpretation and Explication of the Treatise on Cold Damage, Chen rejects the Republican era narrowing of The Treatise to externally contracted disease (particularly typhoid fever) and emphasizes Qing claims about its applicability to “the hundred diseases 百病” or all diseases.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [52]

In the paper

“Following the Communist Revolution, fears about national weakness and physical deficiency gave way to a desire to define national uniqueness and the special characteristics of Chinese medicine.”

In the paper

“Contemporary scholars usually place the doctors discussed in this paper, figures such as Yun Tieqiao, Lu Yuanlei, and Zhu Weiju, as followers of the Convergence School 中西醫匯通派, a current of medical practice in the late 19th and early 20th century that blended elements of Chinese medicine and Western medicine.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [2] Cui, 1993

In the paper

“In this article, I argue that fears about physical degeneration among Chinese elites in the early 20th century not only dominated political discourse, but also animated debate among medical practitioners.”

In the paper

“These concerns were central to the program for medical reform they promoted, which eschewed centuries of late imperial medical scholarship and called for a renewal of the medical profession based on the Han dynasty medical classic, Zhang Zhongjing’s The Treatise on Cold Damage.”

In the paper

“Only through a renewal of the past, they believed, could one strengthen medical practice, overcome weakness, and reinvigorate the nation.”

In the paper

“In this passage, “the crowd of drunks” is indisputably the Warm Illness practitioners, easily identified by the long list of therapies, usually applied more or less in the order in which Zhu Weiju recounts them.”

In the paper

“In his Treatise on Febrile Epidemics 《瘟疫論》, he argues that febrile epidemics 瘟疫, a concept that later merges with “warm illness 溫病,” are actually far more prevalent than Cold Damage.15”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [15] Zhang, 2008, Zhang Shanlei yishu erzhong张山雷医书二种 ( Two Medical Books by Zhang Shanlei)

In the paper

“Kampo medicine in Japan had been in decline since 1874, when the Meiji government passed licensing legislation that vigorously promoted biomedicine and curtailed the practice of Kampo medicine.”

In the paper

“Republican era reformers were considerably more radical than Qing evidential scholars, such as Xu Dachun, in their critique of speculative philosophy.”

In the paper

“Zhu’s critique, echoed widely amongst his reformist colleagues, was that the Warm Illness therapies, the “appropriate actions” listed above, did not treat the illness at these various stages, but rather accelerated or actually caused the disease to progress through these stages, until death became the inevitable outcome.”

In the paper

“Indeed, the Warm Illness current was a scholarly enterprise that emerged in response to perceived limitations of the Cold Damage approach, and we will explore the rationale behind its development below.”

In the paper

“The famous Daoist innovator, Chen Yingning 陳攖甯, advocated a form of Daoist practice, The Immortals Learning 仙學, that he developed in response to his own struggles with consumption. Stressing activism, practice, autonomy, innovation, Chen promoted The Immortals Learning techniques of self-cultivation to create a robust body strong enough to repel foreign influences.4”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [4] Deng, 2000, Zhongguo yixue tongshi中国医学通史 ( Comprehensive History of Medicine in China)

In the paper

“In elite medical practice, concern over weak bodies in the Republican period had a transformative effect on medical discourse.”

In the paper

“But it also demonstrates the level of alarm that Lu felt regarding the dangers of Warm Illness therapies.”

In the paper

“As Chinese doctors began to encounter this literature, they could not help but admire its rigor, as well as its usefulness in furthering a reformist agenda.”

In the paper

“Marta Hanson has argued a strong sense of regional uniqueness had emerged in Jiangnan during the Qing dynasty, particularly as the Qing state was weakened by the disruption of the Taiping Rebellion (1853-1864) and the strain of European imperialist encroachments in the late 19th century.5”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [5] Li, 1985, Shanghanlun jiangyi 伤寒论讲义 (Lecture Notes for the Treatise on Cold Damage)

In the paper

“But the polemics here do point to deeper political concerns, which we can only grasp by first trying to understand the perceived danger of gentle therapies.”

In the paper

“In his brief but seminal essay, The Treatise on Warmth and Heat 《溫熱論》, published posthumously in 1777 by his students, it is unlikely that Ye Tianshi imagined himself founding a new current of medical practice.”

In the paper

“Although tension between Cold Damage and Warm Illness proponents had been simmering for a long time, the former celebrating Zhang Zhongjing as the one true sage of medicine, the latter proclaiming Ye Tianshi as a second sage, Yao’s diatribe seems to have a new urgency to it: as if to say, in these troubled times, weak bodies and weak medicine can only perpetuate national weakness.”

In the paper

“In medical scholarship, evidential scholarship compelled a reconsideration of centuries of medical discourse.”

In the paper

“For the reform-minded Cold Damage advocates, the dangers of cooling herbs were more pernicious: they worked to hasten the natural progression of a disease, masking their dangers behind more familiar clinical presentations, but inevitably leading to death.”

In the paper

“The apotheosis of Zhang Zhongjing began to reach dizzying heights in the Republican period as reformers sought a new path forward out of China’s colonial situation.”

In the paper

“Lu Yuanlei’s analysis, itself built on a critique of Yun Tieqiao and his adoption of Kitamura Tadahiro’s explication of the six jing, had been an attempt to expunge all speculative philosophy from this debate.”

In the paper

“Building on Lu Yuanlei’s analysis of the six jing from A Modern Interpretation of the Treatise on Cold Damage, Zhu Weiju’s five stages takes the reformist debates on the six jing to their logical conclusion.”

In the paper

“Qing evidential scholars, like Ke Qin, had critiqued this kind of narrow interpretation of The Treatise, arguing that its formulas were useful in the treatment of all diseases.”

In the paper

“With Zhu Weiju’s five stages, this last vestige of traditional theory, the enduring depiction of the inner topography of the body that originates with The Inner Canon, was swept away.”

In the paper

“Zhu’s “five stages,” however, captures his radical reinterpretation of The Treatise.”

In the paper

“Zhu Weiju (1884-1951) was a legendary clinician, the anecdotes about his clinical achievements suggesting that he may have been even more skilled than his very talented colleagues.”

In the paper

“If frail bodies were not healed immediately, Communist policies at least promised an egalitarian, homogenous body for all, strengthened through the labor regimens of workers, peasants, and soldiers.43”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [43]

In the paper

“Although the name is new, the eight principles – yin-yang, exterior-interior, cold-hot, and depletion-repletion – are not much different than the diagnostic techniques that were emphasized in late imperial medicine.”

In the paper

“But these reform efforts also faded away because frail bodies no longer endangered the nation. China no longer needed a strong medicine to save the nation but a uniquely Chinese form of medicine to highlight the nation’s special characteristics.”

In the paper

“With the success of the Communist Revolution in 1949, a century of imperialism and decades of war and political chaos came to an end. The survival of the nation was no longer in doubt.”

In the paper

“Zhu’s most important innovation in this text are his two guides to clinical practice: “the five stages and eight principles 五段八綱.””

In the paper

“In spite of their debt to evidential scholarship, Republican reformers generally took a narrower interpretation of the applicability of The Treatise, perhaps because their interest in biomedicine trumped their concerns for evidential scholarship.”

In the paper

“In part, these reform efforts were superseded by the work of the state to create modern health care institutions. The Communist government, unlike its Nationalist predecessors, now had the political control and resources to invest in the institution building necessary to a modern state.”

In the paper

“Republican era medical reformers attempted to systematically expunge Chinese medicine of all speculative philosophy. In the process, they abandoned the foundational entities of the body – the organs, the meridians, qi transformation – reducing them to the six jing.”

In the paper

“Republican era reformers, however, did not perceive a profound epistemological divide between Chinese medicine and Western medicine. They believed that the two medical practices described the same, underlying body.41”

What the sources say

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  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [41]

In the paper

“His boldness, his skill in using the warming herbs and formulas from The Treatise, his notoriety for defying the Jiangnan predilection for gentle, cooling therapies, earned him much acclaim.”

In the paper

“The encounter with Japanese Kampo scholarship expanded rapidly over the next few years, becoming inspiration for more radical thought in China.”

In the paper

“Lu Yuanlei’s use of biomedicine in his scholarship was perhaps unmatched, except by his friend and colleague Zhu Weiju 祝味菊.”

In the paper

“While Republican physicians clearly recognized the significant differences between the two uses of this term, reformist scholars such as Zhu Weiju, Yun Tieqiao, and others were also inclined to emphasize their similarities, particular since the disease course of typhoid has certain parallels with the theory of disease transmission found in The Treatise.”

In the paper

“Today’s doctors advocate the integration of two medical systems, because they hope to bring together the best of two distinct and fundamentally different medical systems.”

In the paper

“These seemingly small points capture one of the fundamental differences of the two eras.”

In the paper

“He carefully examines the major explanations about the nature six jing, adjudicating the pros and cons of each position, staking out a neutral and seemingly reasonable position.”

In the paper

“Chen Yiren, chief editor of the authoritative study of The Treatise by the Nanjing College of Chinese Medicine, provides additional examples of this pursuit of uniqueness.”

In the paper

“In the Republican era, reformist doctors were in pursuit of a single truth and single body. Concepts and theories from biomedicine could be illuminating for this purpose, even if they seemed to strain the meaning of the original text.”