The DOI matches its Crossref record; 37 of the 39 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 58 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Transmitting Chinese Medicine: Changing Perceptions of Body, Pathology, and Treatment in Late Imperial China
Open accessAbstract
<section class="abstract">Historians of Chinese medicine acknowledge the plurality of Chinese medicine along both synchronic and diachronic dimensions. Yet, there remains a tendency to think of tradition as being defined by some unchanging features. The Chinese medical body is a case in point. This is assumed to have been formalised by the late Han dynasty around a system of internal organs, conduits, collaterals, and associated body structures. Although criticism was voiced from time to time, this body and the micro/macrocosmic cosmological resonances that underpin it are seen to persist until the present day. I challenge this view by attending to attempts by physicians in China and Japan in the period from the mid 16th to the late 18th century to reimagine this body. Working within the domain of cold damage therapeutics and combining philological scholarship, empirical observations, and new hermeneutic strategies these physicians worked their way towards a new territorial understanding of the body and of medicine as warfare that required an intimate familiarity with the body’s topography. In late imperial China this new view of the body and medicine was gradually re-absorbed into the mainstream. In Japan, however, it led to a break with this orthodoxy that in the Republican era became influential in China once more. I argue that attending further to the innovations of this period—commonly portrayed as one of decline—from a transnational perspective may help to go beyond the modern insistence to frame East Asian medicines as traditional. </section>
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This essay challenges the view that Chinese medicine rested on an unchanging body model, tracing late Ming–Qing Jiangnan physicians who replaced a conduit-centred body with a territorial, shell-and-division imagination. It argues that this transformation travelled to Edo Japan and back to Republican China, and that historiography should attend to epistemic breaks and lineage memory practices rather than only continuity.
Key findings
- Fang Youzhi’s 1593 *Critical Essay* used philology and empirical observation to read *jing* as a territorial “division” rather than a conduit, depicted the body as a shell containing organs, and downgraded conduits as pathogen pathways.
- Yu Chang’s 1648 *Essays on the Revered Treatise* integrated Fang’s model into treatment strategies, while Ke Qin’s 1706 *Anthology for the Revival of Cold Damage* developed six bounded bodily domains and medicine as territorial warfare; Ke’s exegesis was reprinted over thirty times in the following 250 years.
- In Edo Japan, Yoshimasu Tōdō’s 1747 *A Break in Medicine* radicalised empiricism by rejecting cosmological resonance and focusing on locating and removing toxin; in Republican China, Zhang Taiyan and Lu Yuanlei rediscovered Ke and Yoshimasu, but the national-medicine project failed partly because it excluded warm disorder therapeutics.
- Qing synthesis, seen in the 1742 *Golden Mirror* and Xu Dachun’s 1757 *On the Origin and Development of Medicine*, reabsorbed these innovations into Inner Canon orthodoxy, while Mao-era textbooks later presented multiple commentators side by side.
Methods
- Historical and philological analysis of Chinese medical texts, commentaries, diagrams, and case records from the mid-16th to late 18th centuries, centred on reinterpretations of the *Treatise on Cold Damage*.
- Transnational comparison of Jiangnan China and Edo Japan, plus Republican-era Chinese reception, with attention to emic lineage discourse and memory practices.
- No quantitative or clinical data; the argument is built from close reading of primary sources and secondary historiography.
Limitations
- The author states that detailed reasons for the different Qing Chinese and Edo Japanese receptions are beyond the essay’s scope, that Yu Chang’s re-articulation of anatomy and physiology cannot be explored in detail, and that similar accounts for the remaining five divisions are beyond scope.
- Evident from the text: the study focuses on elite scholar-physicians in Jiangnan and Japan, leaving non-elite practitioners, other regions, and currents such as warm disorder therapeutics less fully represented.
- Evident from the text: conclusions are interpretive and depend on surviving texts and diagrams, with no systematic sampling or quantitative evidence.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 58 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingnone given
Most of these physicians worked in the domain of cold damage therapeutics, which at that time concerned itself with fevers and epidemic disorders.
“For a number of different reasons, which I will explain in due course, most of these physicians worked in the domain of ‘cold damage’ (shanghan 傷寒) therapeutics, which at that time concerned itself with fevers and epidemic disorders.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation
Yu Chang's medical thinking and practice drew on many sources: Confucian learning, Buddhist doctrine, Daoist healing practices, and Western bodily ideas introduced by Jesuit missionaries.
“Besides various trends of Confucian scholarship and Buddhist doctrine these included Daoist therapeutic practices and an awareness of western ideas about the body recently brought to China by Jesuit missionaries.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [67] Unschuld, 1986
- Findingown data
Fang's diagrams and explanations stress the role of anatomical space in how pathogens are contracted, expelled, and passed between bodily spaces.
“Fang’s diagrams and his attendant explanations emphasise the importance of anatomical space in determining the contraction, elimination, and transmission of pathogens between and through various bodily spaces.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
A group of influential physicians in the wider Suzhou region between the late 16th and early 18th centuries carried out profound revisions of established medical doctrine and practice.
“I will examine a series of profound and far-reaching revisions of established medical doctrine and practice carried out by a group of influential physicians living in the wider Suzhou region between the late 16th and early 18th centuries.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The gall bladder, traditionally seen as closely attached to the liver and not independent, corresponds to lesser yang, the unoccupied space between internal organs and the external shell.
“The gall bladder, which traditionally was considered to ‘adhere closely to the liver’ (nianlian yu gan er buli ) and thus not constitute an ‘independent’ (bu ziwei 不自立) organ resonates with the lesser yang, which denotes the unoccupied space that lies between the internal organs and the external shell.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingnone given
In late imperial China, this new view of the body and medicine was gradually re-absorbed into the mainstream.
“In late imperial China this new view of the body and medicine was gradually re-absorbed into the mainstream.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation
These physicians revived an emphasis on eliminating pathological stuff from the body that had been pushed into the background by the new concern for systems and their regulation among the naturalist thinkers who created vessel theory and acupuncture.
“In doing so these physicians revived, albeit in novel ways, an emphasis on eliminating pathological stuff from the body that had been pushed into the background by a new concern for systems and their regulation among the naturalist thinkers that had created vessel theory and acupuncture.9”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Li, 1995 (1637)
- Findingreasoning
Through such misinterpretations, the synchronic networks among Suzhou physicians reconstructed in this paper were largely erased from Chinese medicine's collective memory.
“It is via such misinterpretations that the synchronic networks among Suzhou physicians I reconstruct in the present paper were largely erased from Chinese medicine's collective memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Physicians in China and Japan from the mid-16th to the late 18th century attempted to reimagine the Chinese medical body.
“I challenge this view by attending to attempts by physicians in China and Japan in the period from the mid 16th to the late 18th century to reimagine this body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fang presents front and back views of the body that contrast sharply with usual sideways or frontal images in Song and Ming texts.
“Fang presents us with anterior and posterior views of the body that differ significantly from the conventional side-ways or frontal depictions of the body in Song and Ming dynasty texts”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
For largely political reasons, this style of practice, known today as warm disorder therapeutics, later came to be seen as opposed in principle to the cold damage style.
“For largely political reasons, this style of practice - known today as ‘warm disorder’ (wenbing 溫病) therapeutics - later came to be seen as opposed in principle to the cold damage style.12”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [12] Sun, 1999
- Findingreasoning
Each division was linked to one or more internal organs on the basis of real anatomical relations rather than inferred conduit connections.
“Each of these divisions was associated with one or more internal organs based on actual anatomical relationships instead of connections extrapolated from the conduit system.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Individual scholar physicians from the late 16th century onward began to question core analytical concepts that had tied together perceptions of the human body and pharmacotherapy.
“I will first show how individual scholar physicians from the late 16th century onward began to question core analytical concepts that had hitherto tied together perceptions of the human body and pharmacotherapy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Accounts that present warm disorder therapeutics as opposed to cold damage involve a serious misreading of the sources of warm disorder therapeutics.
“I will show that such accounts involve a serious misreading (wilfully or not) of the sources of warm disorder therapeutics.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
In Japan, this new view led to a break with the orthodoxy that in the Republican era became influential in China once more.
“In Japan, however, it led to a break with this orthodoxy that in the Republican era became influential in China once more.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
These physicians developed a new territorial understanding of the body and of medicine as warfare requiring intimate familiarity with the body's topography.
“Working within the domain of cold damage therapeutics and combining philological scholarship, empirical observations, and new hermeneutic strategies these physicians worked their way towards a new territorial understanding of the body and of medicine as warfare that required an intimate familiarity with the body’s topography.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Fang argued that cold damage disorders require physicians to understand how external pathogens enter the body physically and then move inward through distinct stages.
“Cold damage disorders, instead, require physicians to understand how external pathogens physically penetrate into the organism and thence spread internally through a series of clearly demarcated stages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
In the early 18th century, these ideas were taken up by physicians who used them to create a new way of conceiving and treating feverish disorders.
“In the early 18th century, these ideas were taken up by physicians who used them to create a new way of conceiving and treating feverish disorders.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
As a result, these physicians arrived at a distinctly different way of depicting the human body and imagining medical practice.
“As a result, they arrived at a distinctly different way of depicting the human body and of imagining medical practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fang's diagrams depict the body as a three-dimensional space whose inside is separated from the outside by a new boundary called the body shell (quke).
“Fang’s diagrams, instead, seek to depict the body as a three dimensional space whose interiority is separated from the external world by a new boundary structure termed ‘the body shell’ (quke ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
A major shift in how physicians perceived the body and reacted to its ills emerged at a historical moment conventionally perceived as a time of decline.
“I am arguing that a major shift in how physicians came to perceive the body and react to its ills emerged at an historical moment that is conventionally perceived to have been a time of decline”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] Lu, 2010a
- Findingcitation
Yu Chang adopted Fang's method of cutting and rearranging the Song edition to reach what he thought was a truer reading.
“Yu also borrowed Fang’s exegetical approach of cutting and re-arranging the received Song edition so as to arrive at what he believed to be a more authentic interpretation of the text.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Yu combined Inner Canon physiology, Daoist alchemical anatomy, and western notions of brain function circulating among literati.
“Fusing physiological notions from the Inner Canon with Daoist alchemical anatomy and with what appear to be western notions of brain function that were circulating in literati circles at the time”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [74] Wu, 1993–94, A medical line of many masters: a prosopographical study of Liu Wansu and his disciples from the Jin to the early Ming, Chinese Science
- Findingcitation
Yu applied the same strategies to epidemic diseases, focusing on emitting pathogens from various body locations.
“he also employed them to treat epidemic diseases, which he focused on emitting pathogens form various locations in the body.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [76] Yang, 1987, ‘Fang Youzhi shenmeyang chongding Shanghan lunde’ 方有知是怎麼 樣重訂《傷寒論》的 (‘How Did Fang Youzhi Re-Edit the Treatise on Cold Damage?’), Guoyi luntan 國醫論壇 ( National Medicine Tribune)
- Findingreasoning
After 1949, Mao Zedong's recruitment of traditional medicine privileged an inclusionary approach that acknowledged many currents while moulding them into a single system.
“After 1949, Mao Zedong’s decision to recruit traditional medicine into the construction of his new China privileged an inclusionary approach that acknowledged many currents even as it sought to mould them into a single system.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Yu extended his shell model to the head, where a bony shell encases the brain.
“Later on in the discussion of the same case Yu extends this view of the body to the head whose bony shell encases the brain.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [74] Wu, 1993–94, A medical line of many masters: a prosopographical study of Liu Wansu and his disciples from the Jin to the early Ming, Chinese Science
- Findingcitation
Yu Chang valued a new image of the body because it gave clear guidance on the routes by which a pathogen could be expelled.
“Yu expounds on the importance he attached to this new image of the body precisely because it provided clear guidelines as to the routes by which a pathogen might be expelled”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [73] Wang, 2008, ‘Fang Youzhi dui shanghan lun de zhongda de fahui 方有執對《傷寒論》的重大發揮 (‘Fang Youzhi’s Great Development of the Treatise of Cold Damage’), Fujian zhongyi xueyuan xuebao 福建中醫學院學報 ( Journal of Fujian University of Chinese Medicine)
- Findingreasoning
For Yu, treatment principles for head and body diseases came from anatomical similarity, not from brain function.
“The principles for treating diseases of the head, just like those of the body, derives not from this function, however, but from their anatomical similarity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [74] Wu, 1993–94, A medical line of many masters: a prosopographical study of Liu Wansu and his disciples from the Jin to the early Ming, Chinese Science
- cites [75] Wu, 2000, ‘Ming Qing shiqi jiangnan shanghan mingjia dui riben hangfangpai de yinxiang’ 明清時期江南傷寒名家對日本漢方醫古方派的影響 (‘The Influence of Famous Jiangnan Cold Damage Scholars on the Ancient Formula Current in Japanese Kampo During the Ming and Qing’), Shanghai zhonyi daxue xuebao 上海中醫藥大學學報 ( Journal of the Shanghai University of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacology)
- Findingreasoning
The Communist revolution curtailed the radical restructuring of tradition proposed by Zhang Taiyan and his followers.
“In one of the sublime twists of history, the radical restructuring of tradition proposed by the cultural conservative Zhang Taiyan and his followers, which entailed removing everything not in line with Ke Qin’s and Yoshimasu Tōdō’s empiricist reading of the Treatise from the domain of Chinese medicine, was curtailed by the Communist revolution.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Zhang Taiyan rejected all commentaries on the Treatise except those by Ke Qin and You Yi.
“Zhang Taiyan 章太炎 (1869–1936), a politically revolutionary but culturally conservative intellectual who played an important part in the overthrow of the Qing government and who personally taught most of the leading medical reformers of the 1920s and 30s, for instance, rejected as misguided all commentaries on the Treatise with the exception of those by Ke Qin and You Yi 尤怡 (d. 1749).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [99]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation
Yoshimasu held that physicians should focus solely on diagnosing the location of toxin, remove it, and let the body/person self-correct, without knowledge of conduits, organ systems, or disease causes.
“Rather than concern themselves with hypothetical causes and disease dynamics physicians should focus their attention solely on diagnosing the location of toxin (du, Jap. doku 毒, i.e., Fang and Ke’s pathogenic qi) in the body, remove it, and then let the body/person take care of themselves. No knowledge of conduits and networks, organ systems and their micro and macrocosmic relationships, not even”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [97]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingreasoning
None of the physicians examined attempted exhaustive accounts of the world or even the body.
“none of the physicians examined in this paper attempted to produce exhaustive accounts of the world or even the body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Ren Yingqiu, father of the contemporary academic discipline Doctrines of the Various Schools of Chinese Medicine, eventually won this struggle.
“This struggle was won eventually by Ren Yingqiu 任應秋 (1914–84), the father of the contemporary academic discipline ‘Doctrines of the Various Schools of Chinese Medicine’ (zhongyi gejia xueshuo 中醫各家學說).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
At a historical juncture when Chinese intellectuals could critically examine long-established truths, Fang Youzhi and Ke Qin offered readings of the Treatise that radically reinterpreted its place in conventional transmission narratives.
“At a historical juncture that allowed Chinese intellectuals to examine long-established truths with newly critical eyes, Fang Youzhi and Ke Qin offered readings of the Treatise that radically reinterpreted its place within conventional narratives of transmission.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Ke Qin developed a bodily geography model that overcame many problems inherited from Fang's earlier account.
“Ke Qin developed a model of bodily geography that overcame many of the problems he had inherited from Fang’s earlier account.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Their goal was to create practical solutions to clinical practice problems.
“Their goal, rather, was to create practical solutions to problems of clinical practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Yu Chang integrated Fang Youzhi's model into an eclectic practice drawing on other innovations of the time.
“Yu Chang integrated Fang Youzhi’s model into an eclectic medical practice that equally drew on other innovations of the time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Yoshimasu Tōdō and other Edo physicians developed these ideas to their logical conclusion by severing the Treatise's connections to all transmission lines tying it to the Inner Canon.
“These ideas were developed to their logical conclusion in Edo Japan by physicians such as Yoshimasu Tōdō, who broke the Treatise’s connections with all lines of transmission that tied it to the Inner Canon.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Fang Youzhi used critical philology, empirical observation, and hermeneutics to uncover a body with an outer shell housing vital organs.
“Fang Youzhi employed critical philology, a new emphasis on empirical observation, and a text centred on hermeneutics to uncover a body constructed of an outer shell housing the vital organs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
After Japan turned from model to enemy in 1937, what had recently seemed attractive quickly became a liability.
“once Japan turned from model to enemy in 1937, what had recently seemed attractive quickly became a liability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Sorting out the domain of Chinese medicine was placed under the slogan of carrying forward tradition by selectively developing its inheritance with modern science and technology.
“Sorting out that domain, however, was placed under the tutelage of a new slogan: that of ‘carrying forward’ (jicheng 繼承) tradition by selectively developing its inheritance with the help of modern science and technology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Xu Dachun's reverence for the Inner Canon led him to integrate new ideas about the body shell with existing notions of conduits and networks while advocating empirical observation.
“Xu Dachun’s reverence for the Inner Canon directed him to integrate the new ideas about the body shell with existing notions of conduits and networks while consistently advocating empirical observation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
More conservative writers rejected these readings outright.
“More conservative writers rejected them out of hand.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
None of these actors actively set out to overturn earlier worlds by revolution.
“neither of these actors actively set out to overturn earlier worlds by way of revolution.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Zhang Zhongjing's Treatise became the most important clinical manual for treating disease imagined as transfer of qi across the body's external boundary and through contiguous bodily spaces.
“Zhang Zhongjing’s Treatise became the single most important clinical manual for treating disease now imagined as the transfer of qi not ordinarily belonging to the body across its external boundary and its subsequent transmission through contiguous bodily spaces.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Yu Chang's Triple Burner analysis of these illnesses directly shaped the work of Xue Shengbai and Ye Tianshi.
“Yu’s own innovative analysis of these disorders by way of the Triple Burner directly influenced the work of Xue Shengbai (1681–1770) and Ye Tianshi 葉天士 (1664–1746), the other key figures in this emergence.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [71] Volkmar, 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisereasoning
These diagrams signalled Fang Youzhi's rejection of post-Song interpretations of the Treatise and the imaginations of the body that informed them.
“These diagrams signalled in the clearest possible manner Fang’s rejection of post-Song interpretations of the Treatise and the imaginations of the body that informed them.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Zhu Gong's Book to Safeguard Life (1108) was the earliest known effort to combine classical medical teachings with cold damage treatment.
“An important precursor to Cheng Wuji’s later classic, Zhu’s text was the first explicit attempt to integrate classical medical doctrines with cold damage therapeutics.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation
This view seems to come from two earlier sixteenth-century texts: Yu Tuan's Managing Destiny for the Common People (1515) and Xu Chunfu's Great Collection of the Medical Tradition Past and Present (1556).
“This view appears to be borrowed from two texts compiled earlier in the 16th century: Yu Tuan’s 虞搏 Managing Destiny for the Common People (Cangsheng siming 蒼生司命) published in 1515, and Xu Chunfu’s 徐春甫 Great Collection of the Medical Tradition Past and Present (Gu jin yi tong daquan 古今醫統大全) published in 1556.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [61] Qiu, 2010, ‘Ru, dao, fo dui Yu Chang yixue pinge ji sixiang de yinxiang’ 儒,道,佛對喻昌醫學品格及思想的影響 (‘The Influence of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism on the Morals and Thought of Yu Chang’), Zhejiang zhongyi xueyuan bao 江西中醫學院學報 ( Journal of Jiangxi University of tcm )
- Interpretationcitation
Yu Chang was a more conventional Ming scholar-physician who sought to synthesize diverse traditions into one coherent practice rather than depart from the mainstream.
“Yet, compared to Fang Youzhi, whose influence on his own thinking he acknowledged, Yu was a more conventional Ming dynasty scholar physician concerned with synthesising various currents of tradition into a single intelligible and coherent practice rather than breaking away from the mainstream.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [66] Unschuld, 1985
- Interpretationown data
Fang's diagrams reject correspondences between microcosm and macrocosm that are mediated by five phases and expressed in visceral systems theory, favouring a territorial view of bodily space as the material basis of disease.
“They visibly eschew microcosmic/macrocosmic resonances as both mediated by the five phases and embodied in visceral systems theory in favour of a territorial rendition of bodily space as the material grounding of disease process.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Traditional medicine survives because it can adjust to constantly changing environments of practice.
“traditional medicine survives because it is able to adjust to constantly changing environments of practice.2”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] Fang, 2009 (1593)
- Premisenone given
Fang Youzhi, a scholar physician from the Xin'an region of southern Anhui province, initiated this transformation.
“The person who initiated this transformation was Fang Youzhi 方有执 (1522–99), a scholar physician from the Xin’an 新安 region of southern Anhui province.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Fang's critique was an effort to shift medicine from philosophical speculation toward observation of nature, not merely another personal synthesis or reinterpretation of cold damage theory.
“Fang’s acerbic critique thus was more than an effort to add merely one more personal synthesis to an ever enlarging archive of texts, or to reinterpret cold damage theory. It was an attempt to move medicine away from philosophical speculation and ground it in observing things in nature.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Fang Youzhi's two opening diagrams in Critical Essay drew on a novel conception of cold damage illness and the bodies affected.
“The two diagrams that open Fang’s Critical Essay (Figures 7 and 8) are inspired by a new and different understanding of cold damage disorders as well as the bodies in which these disorders manifest.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The diagrams and accompanying text in Zhu Gong's Book can be traced in an unbroken lineage to at least Wang Weiyi's Acupuncture and Moxibustion Canon of the Bronze Man (1026).
“the diagrams and associated text stand in a direct line of transmission that can be traced back at least to Wang Weiyi’s 王維一 Acupuncture and Moxibustion Canon of the Bronze Man (Tongren zhenjiu jing 銅人 針灸經) of 1026”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [46] Huang, 2011, ‘Daoist Imagery of Body and Cosmos, Part 2: Body Worms and Internal Alchemy’, Journal of Daoist Studies source
- Interpretationreasoning
Yu Chang combined these influences into his own practice aimed at universal principles.
“Yu succeeded in blending all of these influences into a practice all of his own that aimed at creating universally valid principles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Fang used a hermeneutical strategy of reading the Treatise only in relation to itself and then applying that reading to the body and its illnesses, rather than explaining it line by line with other canonical texts as Cheng Wuji had done.
“Hence, rather than explaining the Treatise line by line with reference to other canonical texts as Cheng Wuji had done, Fang Youzhi employed the very different hermeneutical strategy of seeking to understand the text in relation only to itself, and to extend that understanding outward onto the body and its disorders.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Fang's diagrams seem to derive from Song-era depictions of the body's interior, specifically Yang Jie's anatomical diagrams.
“Genealogically, his diagrams appear to be based on Song dynasty representations of the body’s interior (Fig. 11), specifically the well-known anatomical diagrams of Emperor Huizong’s physician Yang Jie 楊介 (12th c.).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [52] Lampedusa, 1958
- Premisenone given
A tendency persists among historians of Chinese medicine to treat tradition as defined by unchanging features, including the Chinese medical body.
“Yet, there remains a tendency to think of tradition as being defined by some unchanging features. The Chinese medical body is a case in point.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Ke's mapping of bodily terrains redefined their nature and relationships by subsuming contextual connections from cosmological resonance and anatomy/physiology into a single territorial and administrative map.
“If Ke Qin’s mapping of bodily terrains leads back to Fang Youzhi, it redefines their nature as well as their relationship to each other and the rest of the body. It does so by subsuming connections that previously had been established contextually by combining notions of cosmological resonance with anatomical and physiological relationships to a single territorial and administrative map.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Eighteenth-century Japanese proponents of the ancient formula current, unconstrained by Chinese elite aspirations and emboldened by nationalism, pushed the re-evaluation of tradition and empirical orientation to logical conclusions by detaching the Treatise from post-Song syncretism.
“Unconstrained by Chinese physicians’ desire to be seen as part of the scholarly elite and emboldened by nascent nationalist sentiments, proponents of this current in 18th-century Japan pushed the re-evaluation of tradition and its empirical orientation toward their logical conclusions by detaching the Treatise from whatever vestiges of post-Song syncretism still remained.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [95]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
The greater yang domain resembles a system comprising dermatome and connective tissue structures mapped by the bladder conduit/network, including the bladder as a pouch, and peripheral circulation of blood and body fluids at the skin and superficial connective tissues.
“the greater yang domain begins to resemble a system that is comprised of the dermatome and connective tissue structures mapped by the greater yang bladder conduit and network including the bladder (imagined as a pouch), as well as peripheral circulation of blood and body fluids at the level of the skin and superficial connective tissues.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Maoist Chinese medicine followed Qing imperial institutions' attempts to order the body politic through orthodoxies, not Republican radicals and their Japanese and Jiangnan models.
“The Chinese medicine of the Maoist period thereby stepped into the footsteps not of Republican era radicals and their models from Japan and Jiangnan but of Qing imperial institutions and their attempts to order the body politic through the creation of orthodoxies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Connecting the chest to all yang divisions and the heart to all yin and yang divisions made it easier for Ke to account for observable clinical realities.
“Connecting the chest to all of the yang divisions, and the heart to all yin and yang divisions, made it much easier for Ke Qin to account for observable clinical realities in terms of his model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Shifting to transnational and more thoroughly emic perspectives radically transforms the familiar landscapes of late imperial Chinese medical history.
“In this concluding section, I will show that shifting to transnational and more thoroughly emic perspectives radically transforms the familiar landscapes of Chinese medical history in the late imperial period, rendering visible a vastly more productive terrain.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Ke elaborated the relationships holding each division together without recourse to cosmological resonance, which Fang still needed.
“In each case, the relationships that establish and hold a division together are elaborated by Ke Qin without recourse to the logic of cosmological resonance that was still necessary for Fang Youzhi to explain, for instance, why the flesh as the centre of the body shell related to the Stomach and Intestines at the centre of the body’s interior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Ke's innovations challenge post-Song medicine far beyond his interpretation of the Treatise.
“Ke’s paradigm shifting innovations, hidden behind claims for reviving ancient medical practice, thereby challenge post-Song medicine far beyond its interpretation of the Treatise.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
These physicians followed Yu Chang and Fang in treating externally contracted disorders by removing pathogens from a body seen as a shell-like exterior containing viscera and bowels.
“These physicians would also follow Yu Chang and, by extension, Fang Youzhi in addressing externally contracted disorders by removing pathogens from a body they perceived to be composed of a shell-like exterior that contained the viscera and bowels inside.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
In Jiangnan, defining the Treatise as a canon equal to or above the Inner Canon led toward an irreconcilable break that was too radical even for empirically minded scholar physicians like Xu Dachun.
“In Jiangnan, on the other hand, the irreconcilable break towards which the definition of the Treatise as a canon on par or even above the Inner Canon was leading was too radical an option even for empirically minded scholar physicians like Xu Dachun.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The need to maintain such connections limits the possibility for change.
“Yet, the very necessity of maintaining such connections circumscribes the possibility for change.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Ren Yingqiu resolved the problem of diversity by inserting lineage discourse into a modern Hegelian-Marxist-Maoist reading of history rather than discarding it.
“In a brilliantly inventive move the problematic nature of this diversity is resolved not by getting rid of the lineage discourse that produced it, but by inserting it into to a modern (Hegelian-Marxist-Maoist) reading of history.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
To make this new understanding intelligible and clinically useful, Fang reorganized the text that founded his authority.
“To make this new understanding of the Treatise intelligible and clinically useful, Fang embarked on a radical reorganisation also of the very text on which the authority of his vision was founded.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Unlike moderns who frame innovation as breaks and revolutions, these physicians used lineage imagination, ethics, and discourse to manipulate and recreate changing medical worlds.
“Unlike us moderns, who tend to frame innovation as breaks, shifts, transgressions, and revolutions, these physicians employed the imagination, ethics, and discourse of lineage to manipulate and (re)create ever changing medical worlds.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
As long as Zhang Taiyan and his followers accepted lineage discourse as the defining model of tradition, they were likely to lose the struggle over how their national medicine would fit into a modern nation state.
“As long as they accepted lineage discourse as the defining model of tradition Zhang Taiyan and his followers were thus always likely to lose the struggle over how the national medicine they cherished might insert itself into a modern nation state.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Because the Inner Canon was revered as a classic by the entire Jiangnan elite, not just physicians, displacing it as the original source of scholarly medical practice would have required a social restructuring that physicians alone were too weak to achieve.
“precisely because the Inner Canon was read and revered as a classic not merely by physicians but the entire Jiangnan elite, displacing it from its position as the original source text of scholarly medical practice would have required a restructuring of society that physicians alone were too weak to effect.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
This gave Yoshimasu Tōdō a different way to narrate history to physicians whose lives were organized by lineage relationships but who were not constrained by the texts they used.
“This offered Yoshimasu Tōdō a different way of narrating history to an audience of physicians whose daily life was organised through lineage-based relationships but who were not constrained as to the texts on which they based their practices.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
By reordering their attachment to the past, they created space for redefining the present.
“by reordering their attachment to the past they created a space for redefining the present.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisereasoning
Lineage discourse accommodates multiple practices across time and space by linking physicians and styles through real and fictitious descent lines.
“This discourse accommodates a plurality of practices along both diachronic and synchronic dimensions by linking physicians and styles of practice to each other through real and fictitious lineages of descent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Lineage discourse's evocation of continuity should not obscure that it can enable significant transformation, a reverse gattopardismo where things change so the world can stay essentially the same.
“That this discourse evokes continuity should not blind us to the fact that it can enable significant transformation: a reverse gattopardismo, so to speak, where things change so that the world can essentially stay the same as it always has.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
They rejected them because they wanted to belong to a scholarly elite that by the 18th century had absorbed the critical impulses of the Ming-Qing transition into prevailing orthodoxies.
“They did so out of a desire to be part of a scholarly elite that by the 18th century had integrated the critical impulses of the Ming-Qing transition into prevailing orthodoxies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
All physicians discussed in the essay participated in creating new worlds.
“All of the physicians encountered in this essay were involved in the creation of new worlds.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The ethics of filiality that oriented this attachment did not inhibit but produced intellectual and social change.
“The ethics of filiality that oriented such attachment did not inhibit but rather produced intellectual and social change.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Aligning all Chinese medicine along a shared trajectory or common developmental thread does for modern historians much of the same boundary work that late imperial scholar physicians did against quacks and hereditary physicians.
“If late imperial scholar physicians were concerned to draw boundaries between themselves and less scholarly ‘quacks’ (yongyi 庸醫) or ‘hereditary physicians’ (shiyi 世醫), aligning all of Chinese medicine along a shared trajectory of ideas or a common developmental thread does much of the same work for modern historians.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
A second reason for the national medicine project's ultimate failure was its lack of inclusiveness.
“A second reason for the ultimate failure of the national medicine project was its lack of inclusiveness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Because this radicalism had been largely tamed in China, the rediscovery had to proceed through Yoshimasu Tōdō and the ancient formula current in Japan.
“Given that in China itself this radicalism had by then been largely tamed, this excavation had to proceed instead via Yoshimasu Tōdō and the ancient formula current in Japan.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
Chinese and other East Asian physicians have used lineage discourse to organize medicine at least since the Song.
“the lineage discourse that has been exploited by Chinese and other East Asian physicians at least since the Song to organise the domain of medicine.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisereasoning
In lineage discourse, disputes over medical practice or knowledge invariably become disputes over authenticity of transmission.
“Within this mode of discourse struggles about how medicine should be practiced or how disease might be known invariably translate into struggles about the ‘authenticity of transmission’ (zhengchuan 正傳).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Ke Qin's conception of medicine as warfare to dispel pathogenic qi using bodily topography was a more mature and coherent version of ideas first proposed by Fang Youzhi.
“His conception of medicine as warfare aimed at dispelling pathogenic qi by exploiting knowledge of bodily topography likewise constituted a more mature and coherent vision of conceptions first proposed by Fang Youzhi.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Too many physicians belonged to other currents of practice for a national medicine defined by orthodox transmission from Zhang Zhongjing through Ke Qin and Yoshimasu Tōdō, and excluding warm disorder therapeutics, then the most popular traditional practice in Jiangnan, to succeed.
“There simply existed too many physicians aligned to other currents of practice for a definition of national medicine whose orthodox transmission passed from Zhang Zhongjing via Ke Qin and Yoshimasu Tōdō but which excluded, for instance, warm disorder therapeutics, then the most popular style of traditional medical practice in Jiangnan, to work.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- It may state two separate claims as one. 64
- Probably not a substantial claim. 68
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningFang placed the intestines and stomach under yang brightness, leaving the lungs and heart outside the six divisions.
“Furthermore, Fang subsumed the intestines together with the Stomach into the yang brightness division. This leaves lungs and heart, located in the chest rather than the body cavity and, in Fang’s view, no longer directly connected to yang bowels, outside the systems of the six divisions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
FindingcitationZhu Gong's text stressed that linking acupuncture channels, internal organs, and the six categories of cold damage illness was central to his project.
“Its opening sentences emphasise that establishing systematic connections between the acupuncture conduits, the internal organs, and the six main types of cold damage disorder was central to this endeavour”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [44] Hsu, 2010
Probably not a substantial claim.
FindingcitationFang proposed that the spleen, kidneys, and liver, matching greater yin, lesser yin, and reverting yin, are physically joined to the three yang divisions via shared pathways.
“He argued that the spleen, kidneys, and liver—corresponding respectively to the greater yin, lesser yin, and reverting yin divisions—are physically connected to the ‘three yang divisions through sharing common pathways’ (yu biao sanyang he dao 于表三陽合道).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [59] Mitchell, 1999 source
- The authors state this as an assumption: The pathways connecting the spleen, kidneys, and liver to the three yang divisions are constituted by physiological and anatomical interfaces, including conduits and collateral networks, that canonical texts posit between the viscera/bowel pairs spleen/stomach, liver/gallbladder, and kidneys/bladder.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
FindingreasoningFang adds a third system through the bladder-kidney link.
“Fang, who is primarily interested in the organisation of anatomical space, adds a third system via the Bladder’s connection with the Kidney.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningThese critiques unsettled the dominant model of the body centred on vessels, conduits, and associated organs and replaced it with a territorial imagination that highlighted boundaries.
“These critiques unsettled the hitherto dominant model of the body centred on the vessels, conduits, and associated organs and replaced it with a quite different territorial imagination that highlighted boundaries.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningGreater yang disorders are the earliest and most significant phase of cold damage illness, and about half of the Treatise's core text concerns them.
“This is why greater yang disorders constitute the first and most important stage in the development of cold damage disorders, and why roughly half of the core text of the Treatise is devoted to them.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Roughly half of the core text of the Treatise is devoted to greater yang disorders.
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningFang separates initial transfer (chuan) across the body's outer boundary from later transmission (zhuan) of pathogenic qi between divisions; transfer occurs only at the greater yang division.
“Fang is careful to distinguish this initial ‘transfer’ (chuan 傳) across the physical boundary between outside and inside from subsequent processes of ‘transmission’ (zhuan 轉) of pathogenic qi from one division of bodily space to another. Transfer only occurs at the greater yang division”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
FindingcitationFang argued that in the Treatise the character jing should be interpreted as bu (division), a region or division of bodily space, rather than as conduits.
“Fang argued that in the context of the Treatise the ideogram jing should be read not as conduits but as bu 部, a term denoting government departments or offices and, by extension, a region or division of bodily space.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [48] Keegan, 1998, The Huang-Ti Nei-Ching: The Structure of the Compilations; the Significance of the Structure
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenThese physicians worked within cold damage therapeutics and combined philological scholarship, empirical observations, and new hermeneutic strategies.
“Working within the domain of cold damage therapeutics and combining philological scholarship, empirical observations, and new hermeneutic strategies these physicians worked their way towards a new territorial understanding of the body and of medicine as warfare that required an intimate familiarity with the body’s topography.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataFang's diagrams focus on the region containing bowels and viscera and on the boundaries separating it from the outside, while conduits are not visually shown.
“Seeking to depict the development of cold damage disorders these diagrams focus on the space in which the bowels (in white viewed from the front) and viscera (in black viewed from the back) are located and on the structures that separate this space from the external world. While still referred to by name, the conduits are not otherwise visually represented.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationEarlier commentators either ignored these inconsistencies or, like Zhu Gong, explained them away with special exceptions of questionable logic.
“Previous commentators had either ignored these inconsistencies or, like Zhu Gong, tried to explain them away by creating ad hoc exceptions of dubious logical consistency.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [56] Long, 2010, ‘Cong Yu Chang zhuzuo tantao Han hua fojiao yiyao dui zhongyi de yinxiang’ 從喻昌著作探討漢化佛教醫藥對中醫學的影響 (‘An Inquiry into the Sinisisation of Buddhist Medicine and Its Influence on Chinese Medicine Based on the Works of Yu Chang’), Guiyang zhongyi xueyuan bao 貴陽中醫學院報 ( Journal of the Guiyang College of Chinese Medicine)
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningThese innovative ways of visualising and treating medical problems came to be shared by members of competing medical currents, attesting to a broad-based transformation of medicine among elite physicians first in China and then also in Japan.
“These innovative ways of visualising and treating medical problems came to be shared by members of what historians and physicians today perceive to have been competing medical currents, attesting to a broad-based transformation of medicine among elite physicians first in China and then also in Japan.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningFang noted that although some exterior signs of a greater yang disorder match the hand greater yang small intestine conduit, small intestine organ disorders are not usually linked to greater yang in the Treatise.
“However, as Fang points out, while some of the more exterior manifestations of a greater yang disorder match the distribution of the hand greater yang small intestine conduit along the shoulder, back, and head, disorders of the Small Intestine organ are not generally associated with the greater yang anywhere in the Treatise.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
FindingcitationFang stated that the heart and liver both link to the lungs and then, through the lung duct and pharyngeal opening, to the exterior.
“However, ‘the heart and liver both connect to the lungs’ (xin gang tong fei xi 心肝同肺系) and thus, via the ‘lung duct’ (feiwan ) and the ‘pharyngeal opening’ (hou 喉), to the outside world.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [60] Qian, 2003, ‘Songben Shanghan lunkanxing houliu yanbian jianshi’ 宋本傷寒論刊行后流演變簡史 (‘A Brief History of the Circulation and Development of the Song Edition of the Treatise on Cold Damage’)
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationFang reduces the importance of conduits and networks: they still connect organ systems and body regions but are no longer sites of pathogen accumulation or transmission.
“As for conduits and networks, even though Fang does not dispense with them, he considerably downgrades their importance. They still play a role in interconnecting organ systems and bodily regions but they no longer constitute places where pathogens collect or pathways for their transmission.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
FindingcitationFang argued that the Treatise should be seen as presenting a set of rubrics at different abstraction levels, nested within one another.
“To this end he argued that the Treatise should be conceived as ‘outlining a series of rubrics’ (ti gang 提綱) at different levels of abstraction that were recursively nested within each other.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [64] Simonis, 2010, ‘Mad Acts, Mad Speech, and Mad People in Late Imperial Chinese Law and Medicine’
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
FindingreasoningAccording to Fang, the small intestine is better placed under yang brightness because the stomach and intestines form one anatomical unit linked above to the stomach duct and oesophageal opening and below to the rectum.
“According to Fang, it is more logical to subsume the small intestine to the yang brightness. This is because the stomach, small and large intestines constitute a single anatomical whole that connects to the ‘stomach duct’ (weiwan 胃脘) ending in the ‘oesophageal opening’ (yan ) above, and to the rectum below.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
FindingreasoningFang proposed a more logically consistent account based on the body's anatomy into two linked functional spaces, each split into three divisions.
“Fang Youzhi proposed a more logical consistent explanation based on the anatomical organisation of the body into two interconnected functional spaces, each again subdivided into three divisions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationThe Golden Mirror borrows Fang Youzhi's three main rubrics of greater yang disorders but states unequivocally that the greater yang is the Bladder conduit.
“It borrows Fang Youzhi’s innovative concept of the three main rubrics of greater yang disorders but then states unequivocally that ‘[t]he greater yang is the Bladder conduit’.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [102]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationYu held that pathogens in the shell should be vented to the exterior via the surface, while interior pathogens should be purged through orifices connecting interior to outside-anus for the body and nose for the brain.
“In both cases, pathogens located in the shell need to be vented back towards the exterior via the surface. Pathogens located in the interior, instead, need to be purged via orifices that connect the interior to the outside, specifically the anus (for the body) and the nose (for the brain).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [75] Wu, 2000, ‘Ming Qing shiqi jiangnan shanghan mingjia dui riben hangfangpai de yinxiang’ 明清時期江南傷寒名家對日本漢方醫古方派的影響 (‘The Influence of Famous Jiangnan Cold Damage Scholars on the Ancient Formula Current in Japanese Kampo During the Ming and Qing’), Shanghai zhonyi daxue xuebao 上海中醫藥大學學報 ( Journal of the Shanghai University of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacology)
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationYu described the body as a shell containing the bowels and viscera, with exterior and interior subdivisions and pathways for expelling heat pathogens outward.
“With respect to the human body, this is [constructed] like a shell that contains the bowels and viscera in its interior.”
- Also stated in: § Yu Chang: From Diseases to Strategies · plain
“One always expels heat pathogens towards the outside through [these structures].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [73] Wang, 2008, ‘Fang Youzhi dui shanghan lun de zhongda de fahui 方有執對《傷寒論》的重大發揮 (‘Fang Youzhi’s Great Development of the Treatise of Cold Damage’), Fujian zhongyi xueyuan xuebao 福建中醫學院學報 ( Journal of Fujian University of Chinese Medicine)
- Also stated in: § Yu Chang: From Diseases to Strategies · plain
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationKe held that each division can be affected by wind, cold, summer heat, or dampness, producing different pulses or symptoms because the qi of each division differs, like local conditions of the nine provinces.
“For instance, each division can [potentially] be affected when wind, cold, summer heat, or dampness damage a person, so that the presenting pulse will be different. Alternatively, the pulse may be the same but the symptoms may differ; or the pulse and symptoms will be the same but the main symptom will differ. This is because the qi of each division is different. For the territories demarcated by”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [86]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
FindingcitationYu Chang's rearrangements reflected Fang's view of the text as offering nested principles and a model for understanding and treating externally contracted illnesses.
“Suffice it to say that they mirrored Fang’s reading of the text as providing a series of nested principles (gang 綱) as well as a model for thinking of and treating externally contracted disorders”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [72] Wang, 2005, ‘Tangye jingfa(Canonical Methods for Brews and Decoctions): A Lost Text Recorded in the HanshuBibliography’ source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataUnlike Fang and Yu, Ke did not oppose the body shell to the interior; he defined the yang exterior as including the chest connected to the three yang divisions, opposed to the yin abdominal cavity where the three yin divisions are rooted.
“In contrast to both Fang Youzhi and Yu Chang, Ke Qin thus does not oppose the body shell with the body’s interior, an opposition that leads directly to the problematic status of the chest and it’s organs as a body cavity (yin) located above the diaphragm (yang). Instead, he defines the yang exterior as comprising the chest, which he connects to each of the three yang divisions. This larger yang”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationYoshimasu Tōdō rejected the metaphysical systems of cosmological resonance in the Inner Canon and Canon of Difficulties and proposed grounding medical practice solely in empirical observation.
“Going beyond all earlier Chinese authors Yoshimasu Tōdō rejected in their entirety the metaphysical systems of cosmological resonance elaborated in the Inner Canon and the Canon of Difficulties. Instead he proposed to ground medical practice solely in empirical observation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [96]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [97]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationKe Qin grounded all medical practice in the territorial organisation of the body into six domains, transforming the Treatise into a universal pharmacotherapy manual whose diagnostic model and formulas applied to all disease.
“Instead, he grounded all medical practice in the territorial organisation of the body into six distinctive domains.”
- Also stated in: § Ke Qin: Medicine as Territorial Warfare · plain
“This transformed the Treatise from the canonical text of the cold damage tradition into the most important therapeutic manual of pharmacotherapy whose diagnostic model and formulas were applicable to all disease”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [81] Zhang, 2005, ‘Fang Youzhi Shanghan tiaobiandui shanghan xue de wenxian’ 方有執《傷寒論條辨》對傷寒學的貢獻 (‘The Contribution of Fang Youzhi’s Discriminating the Clauses of the Treatise of Cold Damageto the Study of Cold Damage’), Shanghai zhongyiyao zazhi 上海中醫藥雜誌 ( Shanghai Journal of Chinese Medicine)
- Also stated in: § Ke Qin: Medicine as Territorial Warfare · plain
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationYoshimasu stated that Zhang Zhongjing attended only to toxin location and composed formulas accordingly, showing that medicine is possible without knowing the cause.
“‘[Zhang] Zhongjing [only] attended to where the toxin was located and composed his formulas accordingly. From this we can see that it is possible [to practice medicine] without knowing the cause.’”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [98]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationXu Dachun held that disorders have causes and can be specified by body parts, and that while discerning conduits and networks is correct, the location of a disorder is not restricted to them.
“Whenever a disorder arises it must have a cause. Likewise, the places that have contracted a disorder can be specified in terms of distinctive [body] ‘parts’ (buwei 部位). Today’s physicians say that in case of a disorder one must discern the conduits and networks and then treat accordingly. This is quite correct. However, do they also know that the location of a disorder is by no means restricted”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [104]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationUnder the influence of Ke Qin and Yoshimasu, Zhang Taiyan emphasised manifestation patterns over disease causes and the organisation of the body into six divisions, allowing rejection of five phases and formless qi as foundations of practice.
“Under the influence of Ke Qin and Yoshimasu Tōdō he emphasised two points as central to the value of that tradition and, specifically, its universal and time-less effectiveness: an emphasis on manifestation patterns rather than causes of disease; and the organisation of the body into six divisions (liu bu 六部) that allowed physicians to do away with speculative constructs such as the five phases”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [100]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationFang, Yu, and Ke's texts reached Japan quickly and became a major inspiration to physicians of the ancient formula current.
“It took not very long for Fang Youzhi, Yu Chang, and Ke Qin’s texts to reach Japan where they fell on fertile ground and became a major inspiration to physicians associated with the emergent ‘ancient formula current’ (gufang pai 古方派, Jap. kohōha).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [94]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningKe's external greater yang territory matches the external distribution of the foot greater yang bladder conduit and network system, which governs constructive and protective circulation in the exterior skin, including peripheral circulation and sweating regulation related to the heart and vessels.
“The external territory of the greater yang domain Ke Qin described matches the external distribution of the foot greater yang bladder conduit and network system. This system governs the distribution and circulation of the constructive and protective throughout the exterior regions of the body, i.e. the skin. This includes but is not limited to peripheral circulation and the regulation of sweating,”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationYu argued that the brain is independent of the five internal organs and governs them.
“Yu argues that the brain has a status independent of the five internal organs, which, in fact, he argues it governs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [74] Wu, 1993–94, A medical line of many masters: a prosopographical study of Liu Wansu and his disciples from the Jin to the early Ming, Chinese Science
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationXu Dachun embraced Fang Youzhi's critical attitude and shared Ke Qin's focus on eliminating pathogenic qi from specific bodily regions, but he tried to reconcile their innovations with existing clinical models rather than develop them further.
“Xu readily embraced Fang Youzhi’s critical attitude and shared Ke Qin’s focus on eliminating pathogenic qi from specific bodily regions. Yet, he tried to reconcile their innovations with existing models of clinical practice rather than develop them further.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [103]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningModern university textbooks teach the Treatise as one of the four canons and present the source text alongside commentators from all periods as if engaged in a common task.
“Modern university textbooks that teach the Treatise as one of the ‘four canons’ (jingdian 經典) of Chinese medicine exemplify this vision. They give voice not only to the source text but also to a wide selection of commentators drawn from all historical periods, placing excerpts of their writings side-by-side as if they were engaged in a common task.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
FindingcitationKe asked readers to use military strategy as an analogy: one must understand the terrain and the pathways of the six domains, with incoming roads as the three yang and outgoing roads as the three yin.
“I furthermore would ask [my readers] to use the analogy of military strategy as the essence of military strategy lies in understanding the terrain. One must first understand the pathways of the six domains as only then can one know from where the rebels come. Understanding any formula implies knowing the roads that lead to the seat of government and those that lead out of any given prefecture. The”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [85]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingnone givenEssays on the Revered Treatise repeats Fang's critical view of Wang Shuhe and later commentators who used his edition of the Treatise.
“Essays on the Revered Treatise reiterates Fang Youzhi’s critical assessment of Wang Shuhe and the post-Song commentators that had adopted his edition of the Treatise.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
FindingreasoningFor Ke, the physician like a general must determine the nature, location, strength, and origin of pathogenic qi and then counterattack and rout them expediently.
“The task of the physician, like that of a general, is to determine the nature, location, strength, and origin of these pathogenic qi, and then to counterattack and route them in the most expedient manner.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
FindingcitationKe proposed that Treatise formulas focus not on disease location in particular conduits but on manifestation patterns reflecting terrain under attack by specific enemy configurations.
“These considerations lead Ke to propose that the formulas listed in the Treatise focus not on the location of diseases in particular conduits but on manifestation patterns, which reflect the condition of (a) particular terrain(s) under attack from specific enemy configurations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [87]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
FindingcitationYoshimasu held the Treatise was valuable because it matched effective formulas with clearly defined manifestation patterns without requiring subjective understanding of illness episodes.
“The Treatise was a precious guide in this endeavour precisely because it matched effective formulas with clearly defined manifestation patterns without requiring a detour via the subjective understanding of illness episodes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [97]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningTwo centuries later, the ancient formula current and Yoshimasu became models for Chinese physicians in Republican China seeking empiricist foundations, and Ke Qin was rediscovered as access to a pre-Song medicine not yet polluted by Neoconfucian metaphysics.
“Two centuries later, the ancient formula current and Yoshimasu Tōdō, in particular, became models for Chinese physicians in Republican China striving to place their own tradition on the solidly empiricist foundations demanded by advocates of western science and modernity. Ke Qin, too, was rediscovered as a privileged access point to a pre-Song medicine perceived as not yet having been polluted by”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataKe's territorial body had two vital centres: the heart, linked to all divisions, and the abdomen as source of vitalities, likened to territories adjacent to the capital that assist the ruler.
“Ke Qin’s territorial body had two vital centres: the heart, linked to all divisions by a complex network of relationships; and the abdomen as the source of the body’s vitalities, which Ke Qin explicitly likened to the ‘territories adjacent to the capital that assist the ruler in governing.’”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationKe read jing as tracks of territorial boundary markers, not as conduits and networks as in the Inner Canon, and these markers mapped the body into six bounded territorial domains.
“Ke read the controversial term jing 經 as referring to ‘the tracks of territorial boundary markers’ (jingjie zhi jing 經界之經) and not, as in the Inner Canon, to ‘the tracks of the conduits and networks’ (jingluo zhi jing 經絡之經).”
- Also stated in: § Ke Qin: Medicine as Territorial Warfare · boosted
“These boundary markers mapped the topography of the human body into six clearly bounded territorial domains or divisions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [82] Zhu, 2006
- Also stated in: § Ke Qin: Medicine as Territorial Warfare · boosted
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationXu described the physical shell as skin, flesh, sinews, and bone, containing viscera and bowels interconnected by conduits and networks that transport within the shell; pathogenic qi may settle in any of these.
“A person’s physical appearance consists of skin, flesh, sinews, and bone. These form the so-called physical shell. The empty space inside this shell is filled by the viscera and bowels. They are interconnected and communicate with each other through the conduits and networks and transport within the physical shell. They are the pathways of transmission, transformation, and circulation. Hence, when”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [105]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationKe held that Zhang Zhongjing composed formulas because of the symptoms they treat, not because of the conduits they enter, and that one uses the corresponding formula upon seeing a manifestation pattern.
“[Zhang] Zhongjing’s formulas were composed because of the symptoms [they treat], not because of the conduits [they enter]. Whenever one sees a specific manifestation pattern, one employs the [corresponding] formula.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [87]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataKe extended his territorial imagination to medicine as territorial warfare, defining all illness as arising from pathogenic qi in one or more bodily domains, with such qi able to enter from outside or arise within.
“Ke Qin extends this new territorial imagination of the body to a conception of medicine as territorial warfare. To this end he defines all illness as arising from the presence of pathogenic qi in one or more bodily domains. Like invading armies such pathogenic qi may enter the body from outside, but like robbers and bandits it may also arise entirely from within.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Findingnone givenLocating one's topic within two thousand or more years of history is obligatory in contemporary conference presentations, journal articles, or medical texts on Chinese medicine.
“Locating one’s topic within two thousand years or more of history thus constitutes an obligatory element in the introduction of any contemporary conference presentation, journal article, or medical text on Chinese medicine.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenFang Youzhi argued that Zhang Zhongjing's text should be read as a canonical work in its own right, not as developing themes from the Inner Canon.
“As Fang Youzhi pointed out in unequivocal terms, Zhang Zhongjing’s text should no longer be read as a treatise that developed themes contained within the Inner Canon, but as a canonical work in its own right.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenFollowing Xu Dachun and Xie Guan, Ren Yingqiu defined Chinese medicine as multiple lineage-like currents all originating from a common source.
“Following the example of Xu Dachun and Xie Guan, Ren Yingqiu defined Chinese medicine as a field of multiple lineage-like currents (pai 派) that all originate from a common source.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenKe Qin claimed to revive cold damage therapeutics while fundamentally reframing it.
“Ke Qin claimed to be reviving cold damage therapeutics even as he was fundamentally reframing it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Findingnone givenFang Youzhi venerated Zhang Zhongjing with an intensity few earlier commentators could match.
“Fang Youzhi venerated Zhang Zhongjing with an intensity few earlier commentators could match.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenXu Dachun re-assimilated these ideas to the Inner Canon, preventing a break between the two traditions that in Japan was openly forced by ancient formula physicians, most exemplarily Yoshimasu Tōdō.
“Xu Dachun re-assimilated these ideas to the body of the Inner Canon, forestalling a break between the two traditions that in Japan was openly forced by physicians of the ancient formula current, most exemplary by Yoshimasu Tōdō.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenEach current can divide into sub-currents or join and intersect with other currents at various scales.
“Each current can divide into sub-currents, or it can join and intersect with other currents at various levels of scale.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenFang claimed more immediate access to the true meaning of the Treatise while applying philology and empirical observation to an ethically charged task.
“He claimed to have gained more immediate access to the true meaning of his Treatise, even as he put philology and empirical observation to the same ethically charged task.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenThey claimed to produce more comprehensive accounts of illness than competitors and to teach others to be clinically more effective.
“They claimed that they could produce more comprehensive accounts of illness than their competitors and teach others how to be clinically more effective.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenIn the 1920s and 1930s, Zhang Taiyan and his students, especially Lu Yuanlei, sought to establish a national medicine fitting modern China but rooted in ancient empirical practice, and rediscovered the radical potential of Ming-Qing transition writers.
“For a brief moment in the 1920s and 30s, Zhang Taiyan and his students, most importantly Lu Yuanlei 陸淵雷 (1894–1955), who were seeking to establish a national medicine (guoyi 國醫) that fitted modern China but was rooted in ancient forms of empirical practice, rediscovered the radical potential of the writers of the Ming-Qing transition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenFor late imperial scholars, going back to the source was invariably the first step to determine whether a practice belonged to Chinese medicine, and this remained important under Ren Yingqiu.
“‘Going back to the source’ (suyuan ), the invariably first step for any late imperial scholar, remained important in order to determine whether or not a practice belongs to the domain of Chinese medicine.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningYoshimasu Tōdō, while grounding practice in empirical observation, legitimated his innovations in lineage terms by turning to culturally authoritative texts such as the Annals of Lü Buwei that predated the Inner Canon.
“even as he strove to ground medical practice in empirical observation, he still found it necessary to legitimate his innovations in lineage terms, turning to culturally authoritative texts like the Annals of Lü Buwei (Lushi chun qiu 呂氏春秋) that predated the Inner Canon.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisenone givenThe synthesis achieved by Cheng Wuji became orthodox in the intervening years, and physicians in the Jiangnan region began to break it apart from the late 16th century onward.
“It is this synthesis, which in the intervening years had itself become orthodox, that physicians in the Jiangzi delta region of China, an area generally known as Jiangnan , began to break apart once again from the late 16th century onward.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationYu Chang was among the first to spread Wu Youke's new ideas on epidemics and disease causation, which many historians see as spurring warm disorder therapeutics in the Suzhou region.
“Yu was also one of the earliest popularisers of Wu Youke’s 吳又可 (1582–1652) novel ideas on epidemics and disease causation, whose momentum many historians credit with providing impetus to the emergence of warm disorder therapeutics in the Suzhou region.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [71] Volkmar, 2007
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisenone givenHistorians continue to perceive deeper layers of continuity beneath processes of change, constituting the enduring bedrock of tradition.
“beneath these ever present processes of change and transformation historians continue to perceive deeper layers of continuity that constitute the enduring bedrock of tradition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThe paper argues that Fang's drawings show Chinese doctors were already critically examining their own tradition, including its depiction of the body, and that this critique was entirely indigenous.
“I argue, instead, that Fang’s drawings point to a rather different story. Namely, that Chinese physicians were already engaged by then in a critical examination of their tradition, including its depiction of the body, and that this critique was entirely indigenous in origin.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThe six divisions encompass the whole physical body, and because all disease unfolds within that bodily territory, they are essential for understanding and treating illness.
“The six divisions circumscribe the totality of the human body’s physical form, and in as much as it is in the territoriality of that form that all disease process plays out, they become essential to understanding and treating the myriad manifestations of human illness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThis indigenous critique arose from a combination of textual criticism, empirical observation, and efforts to improve clinical practice, and reflected a shift away from cosmological resonance and introspection toward more directly observable relationships.
“It emerged at the conjunction of critical textual research, empirical observation, and the ongoing effort to improve clinical practice and reflected a shift of attention in the investigation of things away from cosmological resonance and introspection toward more directly observable relationships.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationLi Jianmin argues that after the new medicine was established around vessels and attached to pulse taking and needling, only two notable breaks occurred in the subsequent two thousand years.
“Once the new medicine had been set up around innovative concepts such as the vessels (mai 脈) and attached to new diagnostic and therapeutic technologies such as pulse taking and needling, only two notable breaks occurred in the subsequent two thousand years of its history.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Guo, 1989a
It may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThis produces two anatomical-physiological systems: one for qi transformation and movement through vessels, the other for making qi and blood from food and drink.
“This yields two anatomo-physiological systems, one responsible for qi transformation and movement via the vessels, the other for the production of qi and blood from food and drink.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationBray argues that all Chinese schools of medicine agreed on the fundamental constitution of the human body.
“All Chinese schools of medicine agreed on the fundamental constitution of the human body.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [5] Ke, 2009a (1674), Shanghan fuyi傷寒附翼 ( Additional Supplement to [the Treatise] on Cold Damage)
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationFrancesca Bray defines two thousand years of Chinese medical history as the rearranging of furniture in a building that never really changed itself.
“Bray defines two thousand years of history as the rearranging of furniture in a building that never really changed itself”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [5] Ke, 2009a (1674), Shanghan fuyi傷寒附翼 ( Additional Supplement to [the Treatise] on Cold Damage)
It may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningFang restricted five phases thinking to illnesses originating inside the five visceral systems, thereby laying the foundation for a more radical critique.
“It is Fang, however, who lays the foundation of a more radical critique by limiting the relevance of five phases thinking to those disorders that arise internally within the five visceral systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premiseown dataFang Youzhi begins his critique with two diagrams of the body that depict yang and yin type disorders located in the exterior and interior of the body respectively.
“Even more significantly, Fang begins his critique not with words but with two diagrams of the body. These depict yang and yin type disorders located in the exterior and interior of the body respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Premisenone givenFang Youzhi argued that the editing of the Treatise by Wang Shuhe and the commentaries by Cheng Wuji and other post-Song writers had significantly distorted the original arrangement, meaning, and utility of the text and contributed to a decline of standards in medical practice.
“Fang argued that the editing of the Treatise undertaken by Wang Shuhe and the commentaries by Cheng Wuji and other post-Song writers had significantly distorted the original arrangement, meaning, and utility of the text and thereby contributed to a decline of standards in medical practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisenone givenThe Chinese medical body is often assumed to have been given its definitive form in the late Han dynasty, based on internal organs, conduits, collaterals, and related body structures.
“This is assumed to have been formalised by the late Han dynasty around a system of internal organs, conduits, collaterals, and associated body structures.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningFang breaks longstanding links among conduits, bowels, and viscera and rearranges the whole body according to the six divisions' territorial scheme.
“As a consequence he severs long established connections between conduits, bowels, and viscera and reorganises the entire body according to the territoriality of the six divisions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningConsequently, conduits and networks are no longer the main targets for medical intervention.
“As a consequence, they are no longer the key strategic sites on which to focus medical interventions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningFang's new hermeneutics changed how the Treatise was read and how medicine was practiced.
“Fang’s new hermeneutics reshaped the way that the Treatise was read and how medicine was practiced.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationBoth texts connect one set of organs to the oesophageal opening (stomach/spleen, intestines, bladder) and another set to the laryngeal opening (lungs, heart, liver, gallbladder).
“Both of these texts link one group of internal organs to the oesophageal opening, namely the stomach and spleen, the intestines, and the bladder; and another group to the laryngeal opening, namely the lungs, heart, liver, and gallbladder.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [61] Qiu, 2010, ‘Ru, dao, fo dui Yu Chang yixue pinge ji sixiang de yinxiang’ 儒,道,佛對喻昌醫學品格及思想的影響 (‘The Influence of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism on the Morals and Thought of Yu Chang’), Zhejiang zhongyi xueyuan bao 江西中醫學院學報 ( Journal of Jiangxi University of tcm )
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone givenDefining manifestation patterns as the true target of formulas downgrades the importance of patho-mechanisms and disease causes.
“Defining manifestation patterns as the true target of formulas downgrades the importance of ‘patho-mechanisms’ (bingji 病機) and ‘disease causes’ (bingyin 病因).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone givenKe, following Fang, opposed the subjectivism of personal insight and syncretic hermeneutics with the universal applicability of empirical truths in a single text, redefining Zhang Zhongjing's Treatise as the only manual necessary for any clinical problem.
“Ke Qin, following Fang Youzhi, opposed the subjectivism of personal insight and the syncretic hermeneutics advocated by its proponents with the universal applicability of empirical truths embodied in a single text. Consequently, he redefined Zhang Zhongjing’s Treatise as the only manual necessary for solving any problem in clinical practice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationMedicine-as-warfare and physician-as-strategist metaphors have a long history in Chinese medicine; according to Unschuld they rest on an ontic view treating disease as entities to remove, while systematic views imagine the body as a system to regulate internally and vis-à-vis the macrocosm.
“Metaphors of medicine as warfare and of the physician as military strategists have a long provenance in the history of Chinese medicine. According to Unschuld such metaphors are grounded in an ontic view of medicine that thinks of disease as entities that need to be removed from the body. Systematic views, on the other hand, imagine the human body as a system that needs to be regulated both intern”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Unschuld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThe paper treats Yu Chang as a transitional figure whose creativity, eclecticism, and social influence helped center Fang's new body model and hermeneutics in Jiangnan medicine and soon in Edo Japan.
“I therefore include Yu Chang here not as an exemplar of a distinctive style of practice. Rather, I see him as a transitional figure whose critical creativity, eclecticism, and social influence helped to place Fang Youzhi’s new model of the body and hermeneutics at the heart of Jiangnan medicine and, shortly afterwards, of medical practice in Edo Japan.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningFang argued that the heart and lungs, though anatomically connected to the liver, did not directly transmit pathogenic qi because they were in the chest; this contradicts empirical observation and the Treatise, where coughing and wheezing are prominent greater yang symptoms at fever onset and in other disorders.
“While Fang Youzhi had connected the heart and lungs anatomically to the liver, he also argued that being located in the chest they did not partake directly in the transmission of pathogenic qi through the body. This flies in the face not only of empirical observation but the Treatise itself, where coughing and wheezing are prominent symptoms of greater yang disorders at the very onset of a fever,”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThey were not only producing knowledge about the body and its structures but also incorporating those structures into new treatments.
“That is, they were not merely actively creating knowledge about the body and its structures; they were simultaneously integrating these new structures into novel treatments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningFang Youzhi and Yu Chang emphasised pathogenic qi in distinctive body regions rather than conduits and highlighted boundaries of pathogen passage, reversing the earlier shift toward conduit-based cosmic resonance.
“By emphasising the location of pathogenic qi in distinctive body regions rather than conduits and collaterals and by highlighting the boundaries through which pathogens passed in and out of the body, Fang Youzhi and Yu Chang initiated a process that once again reversed this shift in emphasis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningXu distinguished himself from Yoshimasu, who rejected the Inner Canon as insufficiently empirical and dismissed speculation about causes, because Xu sought to re-assimilate innovations into a universal framework rooted in Inner Canon authority, putting him on par with the Golden Mirror editors.
“For while Yoshimasu Tōdō rejected the Inner Canon as insufficiently empirical and suggested to do away with speculating about causes, Xu Dachun’s overriding concern was to re-assimilate the innovations of the preceding period into a universal framework of medical practice rooted in the ultimate authority of the Inner Canon. This puts him on par with the editors of the Golden Mirror, whose”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
InterpretationreasoningThe notion that the Treatise gave general models and strategies for externally contracted disorders, but not necessarily treatment formulas, was soon adopted by Ye Tianshi, Xue Shengbai, and their followers.
“As we shall see, the idea that the Treatise supplied general models and strategies for understanding externally contracted disorders but not necessarily the formulas for their actual treatment would soon be taken up by Ye Tianshi, Xue Shengbai, and their followers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningXu's discussion points to Fang, Yu, and Ke even though he names none, allowing him to paper over gaps between the Treatise and Inner Canon bodies that those authors had opened.
“The tone and wording of this discussion directly point to Fang Youzhi, Yu Chang, and Ke Qin, even if he mentions none of them by name. This allows Xu Dachun to paper over once more the gaps between the bodies of the Treatise and that of the Inner Canon that these authors had opened up.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
InterpretationcitationThese tendencies are most clearly and decisively elaborated in Ke Qin's work.
“These tendencies are nowhere elaborated more clearly and decisively than in the work of Ke Qin”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [77] Yu, 1982, ‘Dui Ke Qin Shanghan lunyi jianshi’ 對柯琴《傷寒論翼》淺識 (‘A Brief Investigation of Ke Qin’s Supplement to the Treatise on Cold Damage’), Fujian zhongyiyao 福建中醫藥 ( Fujian Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine)
It may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningYu's re-articulation of anatomy and physiology challenged classical views of the brain as an appendix of the Kidneys and the Heart as governor of consciousness and internal organs, and it shows that physicians like him were willing to move their tradition in radically new directions.
“its profound challenge to classical views of the brain as an appendix of the Kidneys and of the Heart as governor of consciousness and the internal organs provides further evidence about the willingness of physicians like Yu Chang to move their tradition in radically new directions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
InterpretationreasoningXu Dachun's question confirms that the Inner Canon's body of visceral systems, conduits, and networks dominated mid-Qing medical practice.
“Xu Dachun’s question confirms that the Inner Canon’s body of visceral systems, conduits, and networks dominated medical practice in the mid-Qing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone givenWhere Fang focused on pathophysiological models, Yu Chang stressed treatment strategies.
“If Fang’s commentary focused on models of pathophysiology, Yu emphasised treatment strategies (fa 法).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone givenThe next development generalised Fang Youzhi and Yu Chang's cold damage ideas so that the whole body became a war territory and the Treatise became a manual for effective battle.
“The next step in the development of this newly emergent approach to medicine consisted in generalising the ideas of Fang Youzhi and Yu Chang regarding cold damage disorders to one in which the entire body became a territory for the waging of war and of the Treatise as a manual that enabled physicians to conduct their battles in the most effective way.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationContemporary anglophone and sinophone histories downplay the radical nature of Jiangnan medical thought during the Ming/Qing transition, mostly assimilating its exponents into a familiar image of medical currents linked to a common source.
“Contemporary anglophone and sinophone histories of Chinese medicine downplay the radical nature of Jiangnan medical thought during the Ming/Qing transition. Most assimilate its various exponents into the familiar image of medical currents that despite their diversity link to a common source.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [92]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningTo become a more effective clinical strategist, it was necessary to survey the bodily terrain anew.
“to become a more effective clinical strategist it was necessary to survey anew the bodily terrain.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone givenThe later intrusion of western anatomy and science may have strangled a more profound native East Asian medical transformation rather than sparking modernization of tradition.
“Rather than being the spark that did lead to the eventual modernisation of tradition, the intrusion into these worlds shortly afterwards of western anatomy and science may have strangled the development of a more profound native East Asian medical transformation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone givenThese physicians discovered and described new things and discarded old ideas and relationships that had become useless or meaningless to them.
“They discovered and described new things and they got rid of old ideas and relationships that were no longer useful or meaningful to them.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone givenThe history of what is conventionally called Chinese medicine, more accurately East Asian medicine, differs depending on whether its scope includes all who addressed a shared set of problems or is delimited by modern national boundaries.
“the history of what we conventionally refer to as Chinese medicine but what would be much more accurately described as East Asian medicine, will look very different depending on whether we include within its scope all those who addressed a shared pool of problems, or whether we delimit the field by way of modern national boundaries.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationEric Hayot notes that to world is to enclose but also to exclude.
“As Eric Hayot notes, ‘To world is to enclose, but also to exclude’.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [111]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationnone givenProducing historical accounts of Chinese and East Asian medicines that do not privilege modern viewpoints-including accounts opposing local traditions to universal science or seeking to explain different cultures within one world-is more difficult than might be imagined.
“Producing historical accounts of the development of Chinese and East Asian medicines that do not privilege distinctly modern points of view - and all accounts that oppose local traditions to universal science, or that seek to account for the co-existence of different cultures within a single world do - is thus revealed to be an even more difficult task than we might have imagined.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationThe world picture is thoroughly historical and, for Heidegger, a direct product of science.
“The world picture thus is thoroughly historical and for Heidegger, at least, a direct product of science.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [113]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
InterpretationreasoningEven if such historical claims are spurious, they show an enduring valuation of descent-based relationships in structuring distinctive Chinese medical worlds.
“However spurious such claims may be - and I cannot help but imagine the derision that most of them would evoke among scholars like Fang Youzhi, Xu Dachun, and Zhang Taiyan - they manifest an enduring valuation of descent-based relationship in the structuring of distinctive Chinese medical worlds.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone givenEntertaining that possibility may itself be colored by specifically modern expectations.
“Or perhaps, entertaining such a possibility is itself already coloured by specifically modern expectations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Premisenone givenA practice or knowledge claim becomes orthodox if it can establish authentic connections to an apical ancestor or widely accepted textual source, regardless of how different it is from what came before.
“If a practice or knowledge claim can establish authentic connections to an apical ancestor or widely accepted textual source, it becomes orthodox no matter how different it is from what went before.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone givenHistorians of Chinese medicine find it difficult to abandon the idea that some threads connect its diverse strands or that a fundamental bedrock underlies its surface differences.
“it appears to be difficult for us to let go of the notion that there must be some threads that tie all of its diverse strands together, or that there exists some fundamental bedrock underneath all of its surface difference.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationWorlds are created through struggles over which relationships count and which do not.
“worlds are created in and through struggles over what relationships count and which do not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [110]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [111]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationnone givenFrom this perspective, the transformations discussed are not hopeless attempts to rescue a declining tradition but bold attempts to create new bodily and therapeutic worlds.
“Viewed from this perspective, the transformations discussed in this paper are not hopeless attempts at rescuing a tradition in decline but bold attempts at creating new bodily and therapeutic worlds.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationHeidegger claimed that the world becoming picture is what distinguishes the essence of the modern age.
“Heidegger, from whom Zhan takes her concern for worlding, already claimed that, ‘… the fact that the world becomes picture at all is what distinguishes the essence of the modern age’.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [113]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningPerceiving Chinese medicine as developing along a common thread until modernity evokes comparisons with the history of science, which is marked by change and revolution.
“perceiving Chinese medicine to develop along a common thread until it encounters modernity, evokes comparisons with the very different history of science, marked as it is by constant change and revolution.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisereasoningTracing lineages to a common source gives tradition a history and socially demarcates it in past and present.
“Tracing all of these lineages back to a common source provides tradition with a history and demarcates it socially in both the past and present.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone givenYu Chang's visibility and social status gave authority to these innovations and made them accessible to Ke Qin and Xu Dachun, who lived in the same Jiangnan town.
“His visibility and social status conferred authority on these innovations and made the accessible to others, specifically Ke Qin and Xu Dachun, who all lived in the same Jiangnan town.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationnone givenDefining Chinese, East Asian, or other ethnic/traditional medicine by reference to the universal or modern makes the problem of unity/diversity inevitable.
“One way into this problematic is to see it as inevitable as long as we define Chinese, East Asian, or any other ‘ethnic’ or ‘traditional’ medicine with reference to the ‘universal’ or the ‘modern’.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
The pathways connecting the spleen, kidneys, and liver to the three yang divisions are constituted by physiological and anatomical interfaces, including conduits and collateral networks, that canonical texts posit between the viscera/bowel pairs spleen/stomach, liver/gallbladder, and kidneys/bladder.
“While Fang does not outline the precise nature of these pathways, one can assume they are constituted by the physiological and anatomical interfaces - including those mediated by conduits and collateral networks - that canonical texts posit to exist between the viscera/bowel pairs spleen/stomach, liver/gallbladder, and kidneys/bladder.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Roughly half of the core text of the Treatise is devoted to greater yang disorders.
“This is why greater yang disorders constitute the first and most important stage in the development of cold damage disorders, and why roughly half of the core text of the Treatise is devoted to them.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
According to Yun Tieqiao, Chinese commentators generally agreed about the three yang jing but were almost silent about the three yin jing.
“Yun Tieqiao notes that Chinese commentators have generally been in agreement about the nature and the location of the three yang jing - Taiyang corresponds to the exterior, Yangming to the interior, and Shaoyang to the half-exterior, half-interior - but have been almost silent on the three yin jing.”
From Ancient Formulas to Strengthen the Nation: Healing the Modern Chinese Body with theTreatise on Cold Damage (2013) · cites this paper as [32]
In “Fang Youzhi: Re-imagining the Body” (page unavailable), the paper associates greater yang with the exterior and lesser yang with a ‘half exterior half interior’ boundary, supporting part of the sentence’s description. It does not attribute to Yun Tieqiao the claim that Chinese commentators generally agreed about the three yang jing or were almost silent about the three yin jing; it also describes yang brightness as the body shell proper rather than simply the interior. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredYun Tieqiao was especially impressed by Kitamura Tadahiro, believing Kitamura had surpassed all Chinese writers in explaining the six jing.
“Yun was particularly impressed with Kitamura Tadahiro 喜多村直寛, who he believed had surpassed all Chinese writers in articulating a solution to one of the thorniest and most important theoretical questions surrounding The Treatise: what are the six jing 六經?”
From Ancient Formulas to Strengthen the Nation: Healing the Modern Chinese Body with theTreatise on Cold Damage (2013) · cites this paper as [32]
The Fang Youzhi: Re-imagining the Body section discusses interpretations of the six jing, and Responses to Ke Qin in China and Japan discusses Japanese physicians’ influence. Neither the supplied passages nor searches for Yun Tieqiao and Kitamura Tadahiro establish Yun’s opinion of Kitamura or the claimed comparison with Chinese writers. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Figure 7 is assigned to two different physicians' diagrams
MinorThe paper identifies Figure 7 as one of Fang Youzhi's two diagrams, but later cites it for Yang Jie's sketches instead.
“The two diagrams that open Fang’s Critical Essay (Figures 7 and 8) are inspired by a new and different understanding of cold damage disorders as well as the bodies in which these disorders manifest.”
“Hence, if Yang Jie’s sketches were inspired by an imagined inner landscape of qi circulation and transformation that ‘eschews the integral representation of the body’53 but endures to this day (Fig. 7)”
The period of reinterpretation shifts by a century
MinorThe conclusion places the reinterpretations in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, but the paper elsewhere dates the physicians' work to the late 16th through early 18th centuries. It specifically dates Fang Youzhi's publication to 1593.
“Comparing reactions to late 15th- and early 16th-century reinterpretations of the Treatise in Qing China and Edo Japan underscores this point.”
“I will examine a series of profound and far-reaching revisions of established medical doctrine and practice carried out by a group of influential physicians living in the wider Suzhou region between the late 16th and early 18th centuries.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Scheid, V.
- Affiliations
- University of Westminster (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Scheid, Volker
- ORCID
- Scheid, Volker
- Venue
- Asian Medicine
- Publisher
- Walter de Gruyter GmbH
- Published
- 2013-08-18
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 299-360
- ISSN
- 1573-420X (ISSN-L)
- 1573-4218
- PMC
- PMC4746752
- OpenAlex
- W2472829448
- Cited by
- 16
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 3 · 2020: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 2 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 23.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Asian Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- WestminsterResearch (University of Westminster) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (088246)
- University of Westminster
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › History of Medicine Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Traditional Chinese Medicine Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › History of Science and Medicine
- Keywords
- traditional Chinese medicine, history of Chinese medicine, late imperial China, Japan, body theory, microcosm and macrocosm, traditional medicine, late Han dynasty, Republican China
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