Buddhist Statecraft in East Asia

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

A century later, the Koryŏ Buddhist monk Iryŏn produced The Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms to redress what he regarded as lacunae in Kim Pusik's work.

“A century later, the Koryŏ Buddhist monk Iryŏn 一然 (1206-1289) sought to redress what he regarded as lacunae in Kim Pusik's work, producing TheMemorabiliaof theThreeKingdoms ( Samguk yusa 三國遺事 ).”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The same document addressed Buddhism as a specific area of concern and devoted greater attention to it than any other single topic.

“Yet the same document addressed Buddhism as a specific area of concern and moreover, devoted greater attention to it than any other single topic.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Kim Pusik began work on The Records of the Three Kingdoms shortly after suppressing a rebellion led by the Buddhist monk Myoch'ŏng, who had gained influence at court through claims of geomancy and prognostication.

“The Koryŏ statesman Kim Pusik 金富軾 (1075-1151) began work on The Records of the Three Kingdoms ( Samguksagi 三國史記 ) hot on the heels of suppressing a rebellion led by a Buddhist monk, Myoch'ŏng 妙淸 (d. 1135), who initially had gained influence at court through claims of mastery in geomancy and prognostication.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

One of the first submissions to the throne after Chosŏn's founding focused on urgent matters ranging from military organization to land use.

“One of the first submissions to the throne after the founding of the Chosŏn dynasty focused on urgent matters ranging from military organization to land use.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Both Kim Pusik and Iryŏn take it for granted that Buddhism had played a significant role within royal houses and courts since its arrival on the Korean peninsula.

“Both Kim Pusik and Iryŏn take it for granted that Buddhism had played a significant role within royal houses and courts since its arrival on the Korean peninsula.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Within days of Chosŏn's founding, T'aejo was offered belligerent advice on the danger Buddhism posed to the state.

“Within days of Chosŏn's founding, T'aejo was offered belligerent advice on the danger Buddhism posed to the state.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Iryŏn's Memorabilia was not produced with the funds, staff, and resources that accompanied Kim Pusik's royal imprimatur.

“It is no surprise that there are crucial differences between the two works, and it is also necessary to remember that Iryŏn's Memorabilia was not produced with the benefit of the funds, staff, and resources that went along with Kim Pusik's royal imprimatur.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Both Kim Pusik and Iryŏn record miraculous events associated with the Buddhist faith and its monks, as well as omens and oddities.

“Both also record miraculous events associated with the Buddhist faith and its monks, and both duly record omens and oddities of various types.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Buddhism's critics assumed that Buddhist beliefs and the Buddhist institution could not be reconciled with statecraft founded on Confucian principles of orderliness, respect for authority, and the state's right to demand obedience.

“But these attacks were framed by the assumption that Buddhist beliefs and the Buddhist institution could not be reconciled with the demands of statecraft founded on Confucian principles of orderliness, respect for authority, and above all else, the state's right to demand obedience.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The self-sacrifice of Ich'adon (506-527), whose execution was accompanied by milk-colored blood, cleared the way for Buddhism's acceptance in 528, with official permission for monks and nuns following in 544.

“The marvel attending the celebrated selfsacrifice of the faithful Buddhist Ich'adon 異次頓 (506-527)-whoseexecution at the hands of Buddhism's opponents was accompanied by the mysterious gushing of milk-colored blood-cleared the way for Buddhism's acceptance in 528, with official permission granted for those who wanted to become monks and nuns following in 544.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Both Kim Pusik and Iryŏn record a prophecy of Koguryŏ's collapse in conjunction with the monk Podŏk, who lost favor as King Pojang turned to Daoism.

“Both record a prophecy of Koguryŏ's collapse in conjunction with a discussion of a famed monk, Podŏk 普德 (fl. seventh century), who lost favor as Koguryŏ's last king, Pojang 寶 藏 (r. 642-668), turned to Daoism.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Kim Pusik's account of Koguryŏ's fall concludes with a discussion of statecraft and geography, and his judgements are couched in Confucian terms to make the point that dynastic integrity rests on proper treatment of people and careful management of relations with neighboring states.

“But his account concludes with a discussion of the role of statecraft and geography in leading Koguryŏ to destruction. His judgements are couched in explicit Confucian terms to make his essential point: dynastic integrity rests on the proper treatment of one's people and careful managementof the relationships with neighboring states.10”

• cites [10]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

In Iryŏn's account, King Pojang's loss of faith in Buddhism led to Koguryŏ's ruin, and Iryŏn concludes with a poem censuring those who fail to recognize that Buddhism's teachings are mightier than Confucianism and Daoism.

“In Iryŏn's account, the king's loss of faith in Buddhism led to ruin, and in contrast to Kim Pusik's Confucianinspired and nuanced analysis of Koguryŏ's downfall, Iryŏn concludes with a poemthatcensures those who fail to recognize that the teachings of Buddhism are far mightier than Confucianism and Daoism.11”

• cites [11]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Kungye's claim to divinity was reinforced by his insistence that he possessed magical powers to see the invisible and read others' minds.

“This claim to divinity was eventually reinforced by his insistence that he possessed magical powers through which he could see the invisible and read others' minds.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

After putting down the rebellion in 1136, Kim Pusik was rewarded and given resources to produce his collection.

“After putting the rebellion down in 1136, Kim Pusik was rewarded and given the resources needed to produce his collection.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Iryŏn treats Confucian themes such as filial piety, but miracles abound and are recounted to show Buddhism's efficacy and the need to support it through patronage.

“To be sure, Iryŏn treats Confucian themes such as filial piety, but even then, wondrous miracles abound and are recounted to show Buddhism's efficacy and the need to support it through patronage.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

To defend Buddhism exposed one to attack, and even kings were ridiculed for having Buddhist sympathies.

“But whatever the case, to defend Buddhism exposed one to attack, and even kings were ridiculed for having Buddhist sympathies.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Iryŏn examined events preceding the founding of Koryŏ, showing interest in nativist myths and Buddhism's role in safeguarding monarchs, states, and people.

“Like Kim Pusik, Iryŏn examined events preceding the founding of the Koryŏ dynasty, showing a great interest in what would now be regarded as nativist myths as well as Buddhism's role in safeguarding monarchs, their states, and people.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Unlike Kim Pusik, Iryŏn was extremely interested in oddities and above all in Buddhist miracles.

“Unlike Kim Pusik, however, Iryŏn was extremely interested in oddities of various types and above all else, in Buddhist miracles.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Kim Pusik's final verdict on Silla's downfall was that veneration of Buddhism led to a proliferation of stūpas, monasteries, and monks, resulting in insufficient soldiers and farmers, and thus disorder and collapse.

“Kim Pusik's final verdict is contained in his concluding passages on Silla's downfall, where he noted that the veneration of Buddhism had led to a proliferation of stūpas, monasteries, and monks, resulting in insufficient soldiers and farmers, and thus, disorder and finally, collapse.13”

• cites [13]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Munjŏng Wanghu's younger brother secured his power and influence at court.

“Munjŏng Wanghu's younger brother secured his power and influence at court.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Thereafter, Buddhism was typically referred to as the 'Two Schools of Meditation and Doctrine' or simply the 'Two Schools'.

“Thereafter, Buddhism was typically referred to as the 'Two Schools of Meditation and Doctrine' (SŏnKyo Yangjong 禪敎兩宗 ), or simply the 'Two Schools' (Yangjong 兩宗 ).15”

• cites [15]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Hyujŏng became Pou's assistant and slated successor for administering the Buddhist institution.

“In short order, Hyujŏng became Pou's assistant and slated successor for administering the Buddhist institution.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Together, Sejo and Prince Hyoryŏng pushed back against anti-Buddhist attitudes at Sejong's court, reaffirming the historic link between Buddhism and the state through the royal house.

“Together, Sejo and Prince Hyoryŏng pushed back against the anti-Buddhist attitudes that prevailed at Sejong's court, reaffirming the historic link between Buddhism and the state through the royal house.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

There was no dramatic announcement, nor any explicitly articulated shift in policy.

“There was no dramatic announcement, nor any explicitly articulated shift in policy.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The request was granted, but not out of any apparent concern for Hyujŏng.

“The request was granted, but true to form, this was not out of any apparent concern for Hyujŏng.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

By the early sixteenth century, Buddhist monks continued to submit letters to local government offices despite prohibitions on interactions between officials and monks, and mere mention of the word 'monk' was liable to induce fury because changes to ordination laws meant that in theory all monks ought to have died off.

“As one particularly cogent report to the court explained, Buddhist monks continued to submit letters to local government offices despite the fact that interactions betweenofficials and monks were strictly forbidden; furthermore, by that point mere mention of the word 'monk' was liable to induce fury because changes to the laws surrounding ordination enacted at the end of the fifteenth century mean”

• cites [17]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Hyujŏng played the key role in organizing clerical militias when the Japanese invaded in the late sixteenth century.

“who played the key role in organizing clerical militias when the Japanese invaded in the late sixteenth century”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

In popular historical consciousness, there appears to be an implicit link drawn between Sejo's acts of political malfeasance and Buddhist piety.

“Adding to the complexity surrounding Sejo's position among Chosŏn's monarchs is the fact that he was a patron of Buddhism, and in the popular historical consciousness, there appears to be an implicit link drawn between his acts of political malfeasance and Buddhist piety.16”

• cites [16]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

King Sejo usurped the throne and killed his nephew, the boy-king Tanjong, as well as several scholar-officials.

“One of these occurred with the usurpation of the throne by King Sejo 世祖 (r. 1455-1468) and the killing of his nephew, the boy-king Tanjong 端宗 (r. 1452-1455), as well as several scholar-officials.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The change appears in dribs and drabs in the court documents.

“Instead, this change appears in dribs and drabs in the court documents”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Hyujŏng understood from firsthand experience under Pou both the operations of the court and the difficulties in attempting to administer the Buddhist institution.

“Hyujŏng understood from firsthand experience under Pou both the operations of the court and the difficulties in attempting to administer the Buddhist institution”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Hyujŏng and the soldier-monks were depicted as cowards and cheats, eager to save their own necks.

“In sum, Hyujŏng and the soldier-monks were depicted as cowards and cheats, eager to save their own necks.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Hyujŏng understood the link between monks and the anti-dynastic bent in popular religiosity that had seen him and Yujŏng implicated in the 1589 plot.

“furthermore, he understood the link between monks and the anti-dynastic bent in popular religiosity that had seen him and Yujŏng implicated in the 1589 plot.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Buddhism, as then constituted, was viewed as anti-dynastic.

“and that Buddhism, as then constituted, was, by its very nature, anti-dynastic”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Confucian officials were eager to renege on deals and continued to search for reasons to attack Buddhism.

“They were eager to renege on deals and continued to search for reasons to attack Buddhism.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Confucian court officials did not like or trust the Buddhist institution and judged it to be inherently anti-patriotic.

“While the Confucian court officials did not like or trust the Buddhist institution, and judged it to be inherently anti-patriotic”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Hyujŏng knew the Buddhist institution in detail from his time under Pou and subsequent travels.

“He knew the Buddhist institution in detail from his time under Pou and subsequent travels”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

That view was prominent.

“It is difficult to believe that this view was shared by all, but it was prominent.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The specific allegations against Hyujŏng and Yujŏng were made by a fellow monk.

“The specific allegations against the two, however, were made by a fellow monk.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The death of Munjŏng Wanghu in 1565 led to the exile and execution of her younger brother.

“The death of Munjŏng Wanghu in 1565 led to the exile and execution of her younger brother”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Officials complained that Hyujŏng was disrespectful to them.

“officials complained that Hyujŏng was disrespectful to them”

• cites [25]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

These difficulties encompassed everything from the implication of monks and popular Buddhist religiosity in potential rebellions to fears that monasteries might become lairs for criminals and insurgents.

“These encompassed everything from the implication of monks and popular Buddhist religiosity in potential rebellions to fears that monasteries, located deep in the mountains, might become lairs for criminals and insurgents.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

According to the civilizational distinctions drawn by the Chosŏn officials, the uncivilized Japanese worshipped the Buddha whereas the officials themselves upheld the highest standards of civilized conduct through an exclusive commitment to orthodox Confucianism.

“According to the civilizational distinctions drawn by the Chosŏn officials, the uncivilized Japanese worshipped the Buddha whereas the officials themselves upheld the highest standards of civilized conduct through an exclusive commitment to orthodox Confucianism.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Pou was executed in murky circumstances and in defiance of Myŏngjong's orders that exile was sufficient.

“When Pou was executed in murky circumstances-and in defiance of Myŏngjong's orders that exile was sufficient”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Two striking points of comparison are the anti-Buddhist movements that erupted in ninth-century China and then during the Tokugawa-Meiji transition in nineteenth-century Japan.

“Two striking points of comparison are the anti-Buddhist movements that erupted in ninth-century China and then during the TokugawaMeiji transition in nineteenth-century Japan”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The Confucian core teaching of filial piety had been integrated into Buddhism centuries earlier.

“First, the Confucian core teaching of filial piety had been integrated into Buddhism centuries earlier.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

At that point, the position taken by Kim Pusik was extended to encompass outright attacks on core Buddhist teachings and applied to the Koryŏ dynasty and its links with Buddhism.

“At that point, the position taken by Kim Pusik was extended to encompass outright attacks on core Buddhist teachings and applied to the Koryŏ dynasty and its links with Buddhism.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

That ambitious plan quickly incorporated laws that aimed at weakening the Buddhist institution by setting limits on the number of recognized schools or sects, monasteries, and clerics.

“That ambitious plan, nonetheless, quickly incorporated laws that aimed at weakening the Buddhist institution by setting limits on the number of recognized schools or sects, monasteries, and clerics.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Kings and ministers boasted among themselves over their exclusive fidelity to orthodox Confucian values, even as they worked to assure that the Buddhist institution was aligned with the practical needs of the kingdom.

“Kings and ministers thus boasted among themselves over their exclusive fidelity to orthodox Confucian values, even as they worked to assure that the Buddhist institution was aligned with the practical needs of the kingdom.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Unlike in China, the dissemination of Buddhism in Korea fostered the growth of Chinese learning.

“unlike in China, the dissemination of Buddhismfostered the growth of Chinese learning”

Probably not a substantial claim.

The question of historical sequence was laid bare in Kim Pusik's analysis of Silla.

“this question of historical sequence was laid bare in Kim Pusik's analysis of Silla”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Wang Yangming was a particular source of dread.

“who was a particular source of dread.”

• cites [30]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim.

With the notable exception of the volume edited by Ian Harris, there has been little comparative attention given to the intersection of Buddhism and politics.

“With the notable exception of the volume edited by Ian Harris, there has been little comparative attention given to the intersection of Buddhism and politics.”

• cites [33]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The longstanding assumption that Buddhism and the state were in alignment was reconfigured; Buddhism was no longer a complement to statecraft but an impediment.

“Thelongstandingassumptionthattheinterestsof Buddhismandthestatewere in alignment, each supporting the other, was thus reconfigured. Buddhism was no longer a complement to statecraft, but instead an impediment.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The result was ongoing tension and eventually a high degree of ambiguity over the position of Buddhism within the Chosŏn dynastic order.

“The result was ongoing tension and eventually, a high degree of ambiguity over the position of Buddhism within the Chosŏn dynastic order.5”

• cites [5]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The idea that Buddhism and Confucianism are irreconcilable would have made little sense prior to the founding of the Chosŏn dynasty and provided Chosŏn thinkers with a guide to interpret preceding dynastic formations.

“This idea would have made little sense prior to the founding of the dynasty, and it provided Chosŏn thinkers with a rough and ready guide to interpret preceding dynastic formations of the peninsula.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The anti-Buddhist diatribes came from a tiny minority of the overall population, and within that grouping there may have been greater diversity in viewpoints than appears in the historical record.

“The anti-Buddhist diatribes thus came from a tiny minority of the overall population, and within that tight grouping, there may have been greater diversity in viewpoints than appears in the historical record.8”

• cites [8]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surviving historical record adequately represents the range of viewpoints among Chosŏn officials and the population.

Probably not a substantial claim.

Once one assumed that belief in 'the power of the Buddhas' protected the interests of the Buddhist institution, it became clear that the institution and the state were locked in competition over limited resources.

“Once one assumed that belief in 'the power of the Buddhas' protected the interests of the Buddhist institution, then it became clear that it and the state were locked in competition over limited resources.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

At critical junctures, Iryŏn explains that accounts can be found elsewhere and were already part of the historical record, implying he drew on the authority of Kim Pusik's Records as much as possible.

“At critical junctures, Iryŏn explains that this or that account can be found elsewhere and was already part of the historical record, and the implication is that he was drawing on the authority of Kim Pusik's Records as much as possible.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Buddhism stimulated the growth of literacy in Chinese and a growing understanding of China's intellectual legacy and technical know-how in Korea.

“Instead, the influence of Buddhism stimulated the growth of literacy in Chinese, and with it, a growing understanding of China's daunting intellectual legacy and technical know-how.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Either a negative attitude towards Buddhism prevailed among officials or those who disagreed kept silent due to peer pressure.

“Either a negative attitude towards Buddhism prevailed among the officials or those who disagreed kept their mouths shut due to peer pressure.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The commonplace idea that Kim Pusik and his Records represented an anti-Buddhist, Confucian viewpoint owes its origins to assumptions that took shape during the Chosŏn dynasty; the two works have much in common, and the difference is a matter of emphasis.

“But this idea owes its origins to a set of assumptions that took shape during the Chosŏn dynasty. On the contrary, the works have much in common. The difference is a matter of emphasis.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

It is difficult to see Kim Pusik's verdict as an attack on Buddhism as a religion per se; his principal focus was statecraft.

“But it is difficult to see this as an attack on Buddhism as a religion per se. Kim Pusik's principal focus was statecraft.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Iryŏn's vision was inverted from Kim Pusik's: for Iryŏn, the state's safety was to be secured through the dissemination of Buddhism.

“His vision was inverted in Iryŏn for whom the state's safety was to be secured through the dissemination of Buddhism.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The central question in Chosŏn court debates was statecraft: the position of Buddhism within the polity, the relationship between the state and the Buddhist institution, and the relationship between the people and Buddhism.

“The central question was statecraft, specifically, the position of Buddhism within the polity, the relationship between the state and the Buddhist institution, and finally, the relationship between the people and Buddhism.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The idea that Buddhism posed a threat to political stability and dynastic longevity went unchallenged, and officials soon emphasized that their disdain for Buddhism distinguished them from predecessors in Korea and peers in China and Japan.

“As a result, the idea that Buddhism posed a threat to political stability and dynastic longevity went unchallenged, and soon after the dynastic transition, officials came to emphasize that their disdain for Buddhism distinguished them from their predecessors on the Korean peninsula as well as their peers in China and Japan.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

A large part of the problem was the difficulty in enforcing policies over Buddhism.

“Indeed, a large part of the problem was the difficulty in enforcing policies over Buddhism.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

For Kim Pusik, Kungye and Myoch'ŏng might have been bad Buddhists, but that did not mean Buddhism was bad; the Buddhist institution, clerics, and beliefs needed to be restrained or made to work on behalf of the state.

“Kungye and Myoch'ŏng, for that matter, might have been bad Buddhists, but that did not mean that Buddhism was perforce bad. It simply meant that the Buddhist institution, its clerics, and Buddhist beliefs in general needed to be restrained or otherwise made to work on behalf of the state, as part of the vast repertoire of tools needed for successful statecraft.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Kim Pusik's interest was in statecraft, and he seems to have had no qualms over Buddhism's historical role in promoting stability through its alliance with ruling houses.

“Kim's interest was instead in statecraft, andheseemstohavehadnoqualmsoverBuddhism'shistorical role in promoting stability through its alliance with ruling houses.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Buddhism played a crucial role in the Sinicization of Korean life and was deeply implicated in statecraft from the outset.

“Buddhism thus played a crucial role in the Sinicization of Korean life, and in that respect, it was deeply implicated in statecraft from the outset.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

In Japan, Buddhism's arrival roughly a century later is typically credited to monks from the Korean peninsula.

“Much the same was true in Japan, where Buddhism's arrival, roughly a century later, is typically credited to monks from the Korean peninsula.1”

• cites [1]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Memorabilia inadvertently illuminates the practical effects of Buddhist beliefs and practices that enabled Myoch'ŏng to exert influence and finally led to disaster.

“The Memorabilia thus inadvertently illuminates the practical effects of Buddhist beliefs and practices that enabled Myoch'ŏng to exert such influence and that finally led to disaster.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Iryŏn was far more strident as a Buddhist than Kim Pusik was as a Confucian, and the possibility that Buddhists-or at least Iryŏn-felt threatened can be understood through Kim Pusik's sequence of events surrounding Buddhism's implantation in Silla.

“Iryŏn was far more strident as a Buddhist than Kim Pusik was as a Confucian, and the possibility that Buddhists-or at least, Iryŏn-felt threatened can be understood through Kim Pusik's sequence of events surrounding the implantation of Buddhism in Silla.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Records of the Three Kingdoms and The Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms each are marked by a coherent vision of Buddhism's historical role on the Korean peninsula.

“Notwithstanding criticisms of The Records of the Three Kingdoms and the massive difficulties surrounding the composition and transmission of The Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms , these two works each are marked by a coherent vision of Buddhism's historical role on the Korean peninsula.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Kim Pusik traced the rise and fall of earlier polities to justify Koryŏ's right of succession, while Iryŏn was at least partly motivated by the chaos of his era and the Mongol threat, which brought Koryŏ into submission in 1273.

“While Kim Pusik traced the rise and fall of earlier polities to justify Koryŏ's right of succession, Iryŏn, it appears, was at least partly motivated by the chaos of his era and in particular, the threat of the Mongols, who finally brought Koryŏ into submission in 1273 after successive invasions.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

After Hyujŏng quit his official positions under Pou, he traveled throughout the kingdom and was in an excellent position to understand the workings of the Buddhist institution and the quality of its clerics.

“in the years after Hyujŏng quit his official positions under Pou, he spent much time travelling throughout the kingdom and was thus in an excellent position to have an even deeper understanding of the workings of the Buddhist institution as well as the quality of its clerics”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Sejo's Buddhist piety was apparent long before he seized the throne, and the evidence strongly suggests that he seized the throne at least in part to protect Buddhism due to increasingly heated rhetoric at court.

“Sejo's Buddhist piety was apparent long before he seized the throne, and the evidence instead strongly suggests that he seized the throne, at least in part, in order to protect Buddhism due to the increasingly heated rhetoric at court.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The 1424 order was one among many, and the general trend in discussions over Buddhism was frustration that led to yet more restrictive policies.

“The 1424 order was one among many, and the general trend in discussions over Buddhism was frustration that, in turn, led to yet more restrictive policies.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The failure of Confucian statecraft in Chosŏn Korea was fueled by incessant bickering among court officials.

“On one side of the ledger was the failure of Confucian statecraft in Chosŏn Korea, much of it fueled by incessant bickering among court officials”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Some kings were themselves devout Buddhists or had mothers or wives who were, and kings tended to balk at officials' demands because they were wary of ruling over people for whom the Buddhist faith was important.

“On the one hand, some kings were themselves devout Buddhists or at least had mothers or wives who were (an enduring headache for the officials). On the other hand, kings also tended to balk at their officials' insistent demands, largely, it seems, because they were wary of the fact that they ruled over people for whom the Buddhist faith was important.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Korean people were trapped between their government's incompetence and Japanese brutality.

“The Korean people were trapped between their government's incompetence and Japanese brutality.”

• cites [19]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Hyujŏng understood this in a way that few others could, with the notable exception of Yujŏng and perhaps some few other luminaries.

“Hyujŏng understood this in a way that few others could, with the notable exception of Yujŏng and perhaps some few other luminaries who helped him organize monks' armies.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Hyujŏng's maneuvering managed to wedge the court's options and reorient Buddhism as a statecraft question.

“Hyujŏng's maneuvering managed to wedge the court's options and reorient Buddhism as a statecraft question.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The strong association among popular Buddhism, monks, and prognostication of dynastic collapse underscored the point.

“The strong association among popular Buddhism, monks, and prognostication of dynastic collapse underscored the point.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In the decades following Sejo's death, attacks on Buddhism resumed, and it became clear that the Buddhist institution cared little for government directives and that the government was unable to institute effectively its ever-growing policies aimed at crippling the Buddhist institution.

“In the decades following Sejo's death, attacks on Buddhism resumed, and two things became increasingly clear. First, the Buddhist institution cared little for government directives, and second, it wasevident that part of the problem was the government's inability to institute effectively its ever-growing policies that aimed at crippling the Buddhist institution.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The 1550 framework allowed Pou to create supervisory structures that granted legitimacy to the Buddhist institution and placed it under the care of the throne.

“allowedPoutocreatesupervisorystructuresthatgrantedlegitimacytotheBuddhist institution and in effect, placed it under the care of the throne.”

• cites [18]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Hyujŏng matters not because he embodied some core characteristic of patriotism, but because the notion of widespread Buddhist patriotism at the end of the sixteenth century is questionable at best.

“Hyujŏng matters not because he embodied some core characteristic of patriotism, but rather because the mere notion of widespread Buddhist patriotism at the end of the sixteenth century is questionable at best.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Sejo's court did not collapse due to how he came to the throne or his open profession of Buddhist faith.

“Equally important, Sejo's court did not collapse due to how he came to the throne or his open profession of Buddhist faith.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Confucian ideologues got it wrong.

“Onceagain,theConfucianideologuesgotitwrong.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Their fecklessness meant that there was every reason for the Buddhist institution to enjoy enhanced prestige among the people at large.

“Theirfecklessness meant that there was every reason for the Buddhist institution to enjoy enhanced prestige among the people at large.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

When King Myŏngjong ascended the throne, Buddhism in toto was a horrendous statecraft problem.

“When King Myŏngjong 明宗 (r. 1545-1567) ascended the throne, Buddhism in toto was a horrendous statecraft problem.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

By the middle of the sixteenth century, it was clear that the Buddhist institution was impervious to the state's legislation, while taxation concerns had remained constant since the start of the dynasty.

“The main practical concern of taxation (specifically, corvée labor and military service), had remained constant since the start of the dynasty, but by the middle of sixteenth century, it was patently clear that the Buddhist institution was impervious to the state's legislation.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

They needed Hyujŏng to lead in negotiations with the court, and they wanted something in return.

“They needed Hyujŏng to lead in negotiations with the court, and they wanted something in return.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Successive regulations had generated ambiguity around the legal status of the Buddhist institution, which created disorder due to a breakdown of supervisory structures.

“At the same time, successive regulations had generated ambiguity around the legal status of the Buddhistinstitution, and that, in turn, had created disorder due to a breakdown of supervisory structures.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The note of urgency in the request suggests that this was more than simply a matter of losing some treasured memento.

“The note of urgency in the request suggests that this was more than simply a matter of losing some treasured memento”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The problem of non-genuine monks led to attacks on Pou within the Buddhist institution and then Hyujŏng's decision to quit his Buddhist-administrative position in 1557.

“led, in turn, to attacks on Pou within the Buddhist institution and then Hyujŏng's decision to quit his Buddhist-administrative position in 1557”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The court elite constituted a tiny fraction of the population; most people over whom Sejo ruled were not government officials with a vested interest in decrying Buddhism, and Buddhist faith was part of daily life for the majority.

“The court elite constituted a tiny fraction of the population. Most of the people over whom Sejo ruled were not government officials with a vested interest in decrying Buddhism's harmful effects on the state. Buddhist faith was instead a part of daily life for the majority over whom Sejo ruled.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

By this calculation, death in battle was the sole meaningful contribution a monk could make.

“By this calculation, death in battle was the sole meaningful contribution a monk could make.”

• cites [26]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

For the Buddhists, the opportunity was to assert their status and show that they were loyal to the state.

“for the Buddhists, to assert their status and show that they were loyal to the state”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

That alone was insufficient.

“But that alone was insufficient.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

That enabled King Chŏngjo to appeal to the history of Chosŏn Buddhism in a bid to stop the spread of Catholicism and strengthen the state against external threats.

“That enabled King Chŏngjo 正祖 (r. 1776-1800) to appeal to the history of Chosŏn Buddhism in a bid to stop the spread of Catholicism and strengthen the state against external threats.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

These intellectual acrobatics were a symptom of discomfort over the mismatch between ideological ideals and on-the-ground necessities made unavoidable due to fears over the spread of Catholicism.

“These intellectual acrobatics were a symptom of discomfort over the mismatch between ideological ideals and on-the-ground necessities made unavoidable due to fears over the spread of Catholicism.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Both anti-Buddhist movements attested to the danger that confronted the Korean Buddhist institution in the late fourteenth century.

“both of which attested to the danger that confronted the Korean Buddhist institution in the late fourteenth century”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

The benefits of a transnational approach are apparent in the Korean case.

“The benefits of a transnational approach are apparent, however, in the Korean case.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

In this conception, people would no longer have any need for prayers to the Buddha, and thus no need to support the Buddhist institution.

“In this heady conception, people would no longer have any need for prayers to the Buddha, and thus no need to support the Buddhist institution.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

It was also necessary for the government-or more precisely, the courts of successive kings-to accept that Buddhism met the needs of the people in ways that it did not and to adjust assumptions over the practicality of policies directed against the Buddhist institution.

“It was also necessary for the government-or more precisely, the courts of successive kingsto accept that Buddhism met the needs of the people in ways that it did not and to adjust assumptions over the practicality of policies directed against the Buddhist institution.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The government's inability to enforce its laws meant that it inadvertently lost any semblance of control, leading to increasing frustration among officials.

“On the contrary, the government's inability to enforce its laws meant that it inadvertently lost any semblance of control, leading to increasing frustration among officials.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Judging by the attacks on Buddhism that continued even during the war, the Buddhist leadership and at least some Confucian officials saw the Japanese invasions as a golden opportunity.

“Judging by the attacks on Buddhism that continued even during the war, it seems that the Buddhist leadership and at least some Confucian officials saw the Japanese invasions as a golden opportunity”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Statecraft finally trumped ideology, producing a workable relationship between the Chosŏn Confucian state and Buddhist institution that remained in place until the dynasty was overwhelmed by pressures from within and without.

“Statecraft finally had trumped ideology, producing a workable relationship between the Chosŏn Confucian state and Buddhist institution that remainedinplaceuntilthedynastywas,atlast,overwhelmedbypressuresfrom within and without.”