Ontogeny of adrenal steroid biosynthesis: why girls will be girls
Open accessAbstract
Male and female external genitalia appear identical early in gestation. Testosterone exposure at 8-12 weeks' gestation causes male differentiation. Female fetuses virilize if their adrenals secrete excessive levels of androgens, as occurs in congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. This can be ameliorated by administering dexamethasone to the mother. A study by Goto et al. in this issue of the JCI provides a rationale for this treatment by demonstrating that the fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is fully functional when the genitalia differentiate (see the related article beginning on page 953). Dexamethasone suppresses this axis, reducing abnormal secretion of adrenal androgens. Their results also show that cortisol synthesis by the fetal adrenal decreases after this period, allowing the adrenal to secrete high levels of dehydroepiandrosterone, an androgen precursor. However, this does not virilize female fetuses because androgens are aromatized to estrogens in the placenta. Thus normal sexual differentiation requires exquisite timing of fetal cortisol and androgen secretion versus placental capacity for aromatization.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Speiser, P., & White, P. C. (1987) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm198711263172211 · Cited by 1,409 · see citing works
11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase and the Syndrome of Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess*
White, P. C., Mune, T., & Agarwal, A. K. (1997) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/edrv.18.1.0288 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
Mutant P450 oxidoreductase causes disordered steroidogenesis with and without Antley-Bixler syndrome
Flück, C. E., Tajima, T., Pandey, A. V., Arlt, W., Okuhara, K., Verge, C. F., Jabs, E. W., Mendonça, B. B., Fujieda, K., & Miller, W. L. (2004) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng1300 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Vogeser, M., Zachoval, R., Felbinger, T. W., Jacob, K., Radetti, G., Bona, G., Corrias, A., Cappa, M., DeSanctis, V., Lauriola, S., et al. (2002) · Hormone Research in Paediatrics · doi:10.1159/000065490 · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Joint LWPES/ESPE CAH Working Group (2002) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2002-020611 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
In humans, early cortisol biosynthesis provides a mechanism to safeguard female sexual development
Goto, M. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci25091 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
New, M. I., Carlson, A., Obeid, J., Marshall, I., Cabrera, M. S., Goseco, A., Lin-Su, K., Putnam, A. S., Wei, J. Q., & Wilson, R. C. (2001) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jcem.86.12.8072 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Endocrine Physiology of the Placenta
Simpson, E. R., & MacDonald, P. C. (1981) · Annual Review of Physiology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ph.43.030181.001115 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
11 -Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase and the Syndrome of Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess
White, P. C. (1997) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/er.18.1.135 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Gell, J. S., Carr, B. R., Sasano, H., Atkins, B., Margraf, L. R., Mason, J. I., & Rainey, W. E. (1998) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jcem.83.10.5070 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
How safe is long-term prenatal glucocorticoid treatment?
Seckl, J. R. (1997) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540370067039 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Narasaka, T., Suzuki, T., Moriya, T., & Sasano, H. (2001) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/s0303-7207(00)00445-7 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Prenatal Treatment of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Forest, M. G., Morel, Y., & David, M. (1998) · Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1016/s1043-2760(98)00067-8 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Lo, J. C.-M., Schwitzgebel, V., Tyrrell, J., Fitzgerald, P. A., Kaplan, S. L., Conte, F. A., & Grumbach, M. M. (1999) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jcem.84.3.5565 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
New insights into the molecular endocrinology of parturition
Mendelson, C. R., & Condon, J. C. (2005) · The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2004.12.027 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Lo, J. C.-M. (1999) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.84.3.930 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Prenatal treatment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Lajic, S., Nordenstrom, A., Ritzen, E., & Wedell, A. (2004) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje.0.151u063 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Gell, J. S., Carr, B. R., Sasano, H., Atkins, B., Margraf, L. R., Mason, J. I., & Rainey, W. E. (1999) · Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey · doi:10.1097/00006254-199906000-00020 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
PRENATAL TREATMENT OF CONGENITAL ADRENAL HYPERPLASIA
Speiser, P. (1999) · The Journal of Urology · doi:10.1016/s0022-5347(05)68623-5 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Reduced maternal dexamethasone dosage for the prenatal treatment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Coleman, M. A., & Honour, J. W. (2004) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1046/j.1471-0528.2003.00040.x · Cited by 28 · see citing works
How safe is long-term prenatal glucocorticoid treatment?
Seckl, J. R. (1997) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.277.13.1077 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
STEROIDOGENIC ENZYME EXPRESSION WITHIN THE ADRENAL CORTEX DURING EARLY HUMAN GESTATION
Goto, M., Brickwood, S., Wilson, D. I., Wood, P. J., Mason, J. I., & Hanley, N. A. (2002) · Endocrine Research · doi:10.1081/erc-120016979 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
New, M. I. (2003) · Encyclopedia of Life Sciences · doi:10.1038/npg.els.0002261 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Reduced maternal dexamethasone dosage for the prenatal treatment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Coleman, M. A., & Honour, J. W. (2004) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2004.00122.x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Speiser, P. W., Azziz, R., Baskin, L. S., Ghizzoni, L., Hensle, T. W., Merke, D. P., Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F. L., Miller, W. L., Montori, V. M., Oberfield, S. E., et al. (2010) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2009-2631 · Cited by 1,484 · see citing works
“dexamethasone has been proposed (63, 69) and merits”
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia—Current Insights in Pathophysiology, Diagnostics, and Management
Claahsen - van der Grinten, H. L., Speiser, P. W., Ahmed, S. F., Arlt, W., Auchus, R. J., Falhammar, H., Flück, C. E., Guasti, L., Huebner, A., Kortmann, B. B. M., et al. (2022) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/endrev/bnab016 · Cited by 556 · see citing works
Speiser, P., Arlt, W., Rj, A., Baskin, L., Conway, G. S., Merke, D. P., Meyer‐Bahlburg, H. F. L., Miller, W. L., Murad, M. H., Oberfield, S., et al. (2019) · Yearbook of pediatric endocrinology · doi:10.1530/ey.16.8.5 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Premature adrenarche: Etiology, clinical findings, and consequences
Voutilainen, R., & Jääskeläinen, J. (2014) · The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.06.004 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Fertility in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Reichman, D. E., White, P. C., New, M. I., & Rosenwaks, Z. (2013) · Fertility and Sterility · doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.11.002 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
The human fetal adrenal cortex and the window of sexual differentiation
Hanley, N. A., & Arlt, W. (2006) · Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.tem.2006.10.001 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Steroid Hormones and the Development of Reproductive Organs
Morohashi, K.-I., Baba, T., & Tanaka, M. (2012) · Sexual Development · doi:10.1159/000342272 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“As a side effect of the arrested synthesis of adrenocorticoids, the adrenal cortex accumulates and secretes a large amount of 17 -hydroxyprogesterone [White and Speiser, 2000; White, 2006].”
BackgroundCongenital adrenal hyperplasia: focus on the molecular basis of 21-hydroxylase deficiency
Gonçalves, J., Friães, A., & Moura, L. (2007) · Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1017/s1462399407000300 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Figure adapted, with permission from Perrin White (University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA) and The Endocrine Society, from Ref.”
MethodDevelopment and function of the fetal adrenal
Pignatti, E., du Toit, T., & Flück, C. E. (2022) · Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.1007/s11154-022-09756-3 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Characterization of human adrenal steroidogenesis during fetal development
Melau, C., Nielsen, J. E., Frederiksen, H., Kilcoyne, K., Perlman, S., Lundvall, L., Langhoff Thuesen, L., Juul Hare, K., Andersson, A.-M., Mitchell, R. T., et al. (2019) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2018-01759 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“The distinct morphological expression pattern of the investigated enzymes is in accordance with those from previous studies focusing on either first- or second-trimester human adrenals (4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14).”
Guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of 21-hydroxylase deficiency (2014 revision)
Ishii, T., Anzo, M., Adachi, M., Onigata, K., Kusuda, S., Nagasaki, K., Harada, S., Horikawa, R., Minagawa, M., Minamitani, K., et al. (2015) · Clinical Pediatric Endocrinology · doi:10.1297/cpe.24.77 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Therefore, administration of dexamethasone from the first trimester can result in a 60-fold fetal physiological concentration in the second trimester (136).”
BackgroundTomi, M., Eguchi, H., Ozaki, M., Tawara, T., Nishimura, S., Higuchi, K., Maruyama, T., Nishimura, T., & Nakashima, E. (2015) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2015-1130 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“found only in primates, but not in rodents, which is accordance with the fact that estriol biosynthesis through 16 -hydroxylation of DHEAS in the fetal liver is unique to human and higher primates (1, 4).”
BackgroundBAXTER, A. B., Wood, E. K., Witczak, L. R., Bales, K. L., & Higley, J. D. (2019) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21899 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“If this finding replicates, one possible explanation is that the negative correlation between maternal E1C and offspring 2D:4D ratio may reflect the secondary effects of androgens aromatized into estrogens (see Gill, Hosking, & Egan, 1998; White, 2006), potentially androstenedione, from which estrone is aromatized (Gr…”
BackgroundRutherford, J. N., deMartelly, V. A., Colon, D. L., Ross, C. N., & Tardif, S. D. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096845 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The placenta aromatizes adrenal androgens to estrogen, thus providing a buffer to female fetuses [57].”
BackgroundVirilization of a female infant by a maternal adrenocortical carcinoma
Morris, L. F., Park, S., Daskivich, T. J., Churchill, B. M., Rao, C. V., Lei, Z. M., Martinez, D. S., & Yeh, M. W. (2011) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.4158/ep10209.cr · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Prenatal dexamethasone treatment for classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency in Europe
Nowotny, H., Neumann, U., Tardy-Guidollet, V., Ahmed, S. F., Baronio, F., Battelino, T., Bertherat, J. Y., Blankenstein, O., Bonomi, M., Bouvattier, C. M., et al. (2022) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-21-0554 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Yang, M., & White, P. C. (2025) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgae535 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Cortisol is again required in the third trimester to support lung maturation, including surfactant production (74).”
Maternal serum cortisol levels during pregnancy differ by fetal sex
Vrijkotte, T. G. M., de Rooij, S. R., Roseboom, T. J., & Twickler, T. B. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105999 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Precursors of sex hormone steroids are then modulated in placental tissue by aromatases after which they will be biologically effective and reach the maternal circulation (White, 2006).”
BackgroundThe adrenal cortex and sexual differentiation during early human development
Asby, D. J., Arlt, W., & Hanley, N. A. (2008) · Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.1007/s11154-008-9098-9 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“In fact, it has recently come to light that the human fetal adrenal cortex displays distinctive steroidogenic activity earlier in gestation, during the latter stages of the first trimester [4, 5].”
BackgroundEndocrinology of the Fetal Testis
Ivell, R., Anand‐Ivell, R., & Morley, S. D. (2017) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29456-8_7-1 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development
du Toit, T., & Swart, A. C. (2021) · The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Tomi, M., Miyata, Y., Noguchi, S., Nishimura, S., Nishimura, T., & Nakashima, E. (2014) · Placenta · doi:10.1016/j.placenta.2014.06.003 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The impact of genetic steroid disorders on human fertility
Reichman, D., & Rosenwaks, Z. (2016) · The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.04.014 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: An Endocrine Disorder with Neonatal Onset
STOKOWSKI, L. A. (2009) · Critical Care Nursing Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.ccell.2009.01.008 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Physiology of the Adrenal Gland
(2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4377-0755-7.00568-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Endocrinology of the Fetal Testis
Ivell, R., Anand‐Ivell, R., & Morley, S. D. (2017) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44441-3_7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Considering Changes in Exposure and Sensitivity in an Early Life Cumulative Risk Assessment
Howd, R. A. (2009) · International Journal of Toxicology · doi:10.1177/1091581809344436 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“One example of this is differentiation of the sexual organs, which occurs primarily before birth in humans.(15) Another example is the migration of neurons through the developing brain, followed by establishment of the pattern of receptive fields in the cerebral cortex.”
BackgroundWitchel, S. F., & Lee, P. A. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4557-4858-7.00014-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The Development and Functional Regulation of the Fetal Adrenal Cortex
Yang, X., Zhen, Y., & Liu, L. (2020) · Yangtze Medicine · doi:10.4236/ym.2020.44024 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Subsequently, the expression of 33β-HSD2 is decreased, so is the secretion of cortisol, the inhibition of the HPA axis is also decreased, and the secretion of dhea-s is increased [26].”
BackgroundIs salivary estriol detectable in very early pregnancy?
Wingeier, M., Ghaemmaghami, P., Zimmermann, R., & Ehlert, U. (2016) · The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine · doi:10.3109/14767058.2016.1169522 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Fetal and Neonatal Adrenocortical Physiology
Watterberg, K. L., & Muglia, L. J. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-35214-7.00147-5 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Abalı, Z. Y., Kurnaz, E., & Güran, T. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Research in Pediatric Endocrinology · doi:10.4274/jcrpe.galenos.2024.2024-6-10-s · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“It is only 10% of maternal levels in mid-pregnancy and then increases in the last trimester of pregnancy (31,32,33).”
Witchel, S. F., & Lee, P. A. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-141604090-3.50009-0 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Witchel, S. F., & Lee, P. A. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-62520-3.00006-3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Pituitary-Adrenal Axis During Human Development
Goto, M. (2007) · Clinical Pediatric Endocrinology · doi:10.1297/cpe.16.37 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“As reduced activity of HSD3B2 during midgestation hinders pregnenolone and 17-hydroxypregnenolone from entering the delta 4 pathway, these substrates are apt to be converted by CYP17 and the production of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) increases exponentially (33).”
BackgroundMacrosomia and ambiguous genitalia: A long overdue answer to the citizens of Frusino
Vasileiou, V., Armeni, A. K., Pierris, A. L., & Georgopoulos, N. A. (2012) · HORMONES · doi:10.14310/horm.2002.1351 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Estradiol production is taken over by placental aromatase which is expressed later in pregnancy.(32) It has been suggested that the fetal adrenal cortex does not produce cortisol throughout pregnancy but only before the 10th week and in late gestation, normally being in a state of inactivation.”
BackgroundDisorders of the Adrenal Gland
Fechner, P. Y. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-40139-5.00096-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Merino, P. M., Bachega, T. A. S. S., Céspedes, P., Trejo, L., Billerbeck, A. E. C., & Ethel Codner, D. (2007) · Revista médica de Chile · doi:10.4067/s0034-98872007001100012 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Disorders of the Adrenal Gland
Nimkarn, S., & New, M. I. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4377-0134-0.10091-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Abalı, Z. Y., & Güran, T. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-82591-1_9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The mouse adrenal gland age- and gender- dependent alterations of growth and function
Bielohuby, M. (2007) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Disorders of the Adrenal Gland
Fechner, P. Y. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-82823-9.00084-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The role of steroidogenesis disorders in developing congenital clitoromegaly
Ivanov, N. V., Павловна, С. И., Radugina, L. I., Михайлович, Р. Ф., & Yusupova, S. K. (2024) · Obstetrics Gynecology and Reproduction · doi:10.17749/2313-7347/ob.gyn.rep.2024.494 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Les androgènes : de la conception à la puberté féminine Androgens: from fetal life to puberty
Bouvattier, C. M. (2012)
LE DEFICIT CONGENITAL EN 21 HYDROXYLASE SUIVI CHEZ LA FEMME ADULTE
de Médecine, F. (2012)
Debates and Controversies in Genetic Steroid Disorders
Speiser, P. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-416006-4.00030-2
Fisiología de la glándula suprarrenal
Gómez, E. G. (2014) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja)
Characterization of human adrenal steroidogenesis during fetal development
Melau, C., Nielsen, J. E., Frederiksen, H. W., Kilcoyne, K. R., Perlman, S., Lundvall, L., Thuesen, L. L., Hare, K. J., Andersson, A. M., Mitchell, R., et al. (2019) · Yearbook of pediatric endocrinology · doi:10.1530/ey.16.2.16
(2007) · Current Opinion in Endocrinology Diabetes and Obesity · doi:10.1097/med.0b013e3281de7489
Debates and controversies in genetic steroid disorders
Speiser, P. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-821424-4.00014-9
Kim, M. S., Pickering, T. A., Cotter, D. L., Fraga, N. R., Luo, S., Won, C., Geffner, M. E., & Herting, M. M. (2024) · Hormone Research in Paediatrics · doi:10.1159/000537847
“Fetuses with classical CAH are exposed to an altered intrauterine environment from the 7th gestational week through pregnancy, from when the adrenal gland is formed, with virilized external genitalia in newborn females [1, 2].”
Stéroïdomique corticosurrénalienne par LC-MS/MS : applications en endocrinologie pédiatrique
Travers, S. A. A. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/84cf9c3bze93ez41dcza251z559f27f3c6a6
The Endocrinology of the Fetal Testis
Morley, S. D., Moeed, A., Anand‐Ivell, R., & Ivell, R. (2026) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29456-8_7-2
- Authors
- White, P. C.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- White, P. C.
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Investigation
- Published
- 2006-03-23
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 872-874
- ISSN
- 0021-9738 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC1421368
- OpenAlex
- W2102869077
- Cited by
- 53
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 1.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Investigation (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities
- Keywords
- adrenal steroidogenesis, fetal adrenal development, testosterone, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, 21-hydroxylase deficiency, dexamethasone, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, fetal cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone
- MeSH terms
- Adrenal Glands, Androgens, Dexamethasone, Female, Fetal Diseases, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Male, Models, Biological, Sex Differentiation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
