Cited by 868Bipolar Disorder and TreatmentWorkplace Health and Well-beingMental Health Treatment and Access

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Prevalence and Effects of Mood Disorders on Work Performance in a Nationally Representative Sample of U.S. Workers

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Kessler, Ronald C., Akiskal, Hagop S., Ames, Minnie, Birnbaum, Howard, Greenberg, Paul, .A, Robert M, Jin, Robert, Merikangas, Kathleen R., Simon, Gregory E., Wang, Philip S.·2006·American Journal of Psychiatry

DOI 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.9.1561PMC PMC1924724

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Abstract

Objective: Research on the workplace costs of mood disorders has focused largely on major depressive episodes. Bipolar disorder has been overlooked both because of the failure to distinguish between major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder and by the failure to evaluate the workplace costs of mania/hypomania. Method: The National Comorbidity Survey Replication assessed major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder with the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) and work impairment with the WHO Health and Work Performance Questionnaire. A regression analysis of major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder predicting Health and Work Performance Questionnaire scores among 3,378 workers was used to estimate the workplace costs of mood disorders. Results: A total of 1.1% of the workers met CIDI criteria for 12-month bipolar disorder (I or II), and 6.4% meet criteria for 12-month major depressive disorder. Bipolar disorder was associated with 65.5 and major depressive disorder with 27.2 lost workdays per ill worker per year. Subgroup analysis showed that the higher work loss associated with bipolar disorder than with major depressive disorder was due to more severe and persistent depressive episodes in those with bipolar disorder than in those with major depressive disorder rather than to stronger effects of mania/hypomania than depression. Conclusions: Employer interest in workplace costs of mood disorders should be broadened beyond major depressive disorder to include bipolar disorder. Effectiveness trials are needed to study the return on employer investment of coordinated programs for workplace screening and treatment of bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder.

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Psychosocial factors associated with workability after surgery in cancer survivors: An explorative study
Silvaggi, F., Mariniello, A., Leonardi, M., Silvani, A., Lamperti, E., Cosimo, S. D., Folli, S., Trapani, A., & Schiavolin, S. (2023) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053231151286 · Cited by 12
“Previous studies showed the influence of emotional distress reporting the impact on the productivity of depressive and anxiety symptoms (Kessler et al., 2006) and the relationship between higher levels of depression and work limitations in a sample of brain cancer survivors compared to the non-cancer group (Feuerstein…”
Result
Chronic venlafaxine treatment fails to alter the levels of galanin system transcripts in normal rats
Petschner, P., Juhász, G., Tamási, V., Ádori, C., Tóthfalusi, L., Hökfelt, T. G. M., & Bagdy, G. (2016) · Neuropeptides · doi:10.1016/j.npep.2016.01.010 · Cited by 12
“Major depressive disorder (MDD) is amongst the most debilitating diseases of modern societies (Han and Wang, 2005; Kessler et al., 2006).”
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Cost-of-illness for non-underweight binge-eating disorders
Jenkins, P. E. (2021) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-021-01277-3 · Cited by 12
“1 was estimated in a study of depression [34]).”
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Self-referent information processing in individuals with bipolar spectrum disorders
Adams, A. M., Shapero, B. G., Pendergast, L. L., Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (2013) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.07.039 · Cited by 13
“Bipolar disorder accounts for over 96 million days of work loss in the United States every year (Kessler et al., 2006).”
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The Use of Narrative Therapy with Clients Diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder
Ngazimbi, E. E., Lambie, G. W., & Shillingford, M. A. (2008) · Journal of Creativity in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15401380802226661 · Cited by 12
Objective Work-Related Factors, Job Satisfaction and Depression: An Empirical Study among Internal Migrants in China
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“workers showing no significant differences in depression among different occupations [34].”
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Work functioning impairment in the course of pharmacotherapy treatment for depression
Nagata, T., Fujino, Y., Ohtani, M., Fujimoto, K., Nagata, M., Kajiki, S., Okawara, M., & Mori, K. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-72677-1 · Cited by 11
The relationship between insomnia and major depressive disorder: a chicken and egg situation?
Güleç, M., Özcan, H., Oral, E., Selvı, Y., & Aydın, A. (2012) · Journal of Mood Disorders · doi:10.5455/jmood.20120208025502 · Cited by 12
“2 lost work-days per ill worker per year (4).”
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Huang, Y. H., & Williams, W. A. (2007) · Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Patents · doi:10.1517/13543776.17.8.889 · Cited by 12
“37a Ar = 2-ClPh 37b Ar = 2-FPh 37c Ar = 2,3-Dihydrobenzo[1,4]dioxin-5-yl N H H N”
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The National Comorbidity Survey (NCS) and its Extensions
Kessler, R. C. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470976739.ch14 · Cited by 13
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Affirmative Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for a Male with Depression Following Sexual Orientation Discrimination
Zapor, H., & Stuart, G. L. (2015) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/1534650115604928 · Cited by 12
The descriptive analysis of depressive symptoms and White Blood Cell (WBC) count between the sexual minorities and heterosexual identifying individuals in a nationally representative sample: 2005–2014
Lu, J. A., Yang, J., Liang, J., Mischoulon, D., & Nyer, M. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14847-6 · Cited by 11
Does Decreased Vitamin D Level Trigger Bipolar Manic Attacks?
İmre, O., Karaağaç, M., & Çağlayan, C. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13090779 · Cited by 11
“Deterioration of psychosocial functionality, disability risk and loss of workforce are quite high in bipolar disorder [3].”
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Emergent treatments based on the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder: A selective review
Brady, R. O., & Keshavan, M. S. (2015) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2015.07.017 · Cited by 11
“At a societal level, bipolar disorder is associated with tremendous losses in work place productivity (Kessler et al., 2006), and health care spending (Parker et al.”
Background
Depression Care Management: Can Employers Purchase Improved Outcomes?
ROST, K. M., Marshall, D., Shearer, B., & Dietrich, A. J. (2011) · Depression Research and Treatment · doi:10.1155/2011/942519 · Cited by 11
The “Work” of Workplace Mental Health
Malachowski, C., Boydell, K., Sawchuk, P. H., & Kirsh, B. H. (2016) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/2156869316642265 · Cited by 15
“This trend is reflected in American data that link absenteeism and poor work performance to major depressive disorder (Kessler et al. 2006; Wang, Simon, and Kessler 2003) at a cost between $30.1 and $51.5 billion USD (Greenberg, Kessler, and Birnbaum 2003; Stewart et al. 2003).”
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Failing Is Derailing: The Underperformance as a Stressor Model
Pindek, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01617 · Cited by 16
Challenges Related to Mental Health in the Workplace
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Interactions between the vascular endothelial growth factor gene polymorphism and life events in susceptibility to major depressive disorder in a Chinese population
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Mental disorders and employment status in the São Paulo Metropolitan Area, Brazil: gender differences and use of health services
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Obstetric complications and subsequent risk of mood disorders for offspring in adulthood: a comprehensive overview
Serati, M., Bertino, V., Malerba, M. R., Mucci, F., Barkin, J. L., Grassi, S., Altamura, A. C., & Buoli, M. (2020) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039488.2020.1751878 · Cited by 12
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Effects of depression and excess body weight on cognition and functioning in young adults: A population-based study
Vieira, I. S., Ferrugem, S. C. R., Reyes, A. N., Branco, J. C., Mondin, T. C., Cardoso, T. D. A., Kapczinski, F. P., Souza, L. D. D. M., Jansen, K., da Silva, R. A., et al. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.083 · Cited by 12
Correlates of Depression in the Slovenian Working Population
Klemenc–Ketiš, Z., & Peterlin, B. (2013) · Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology · doi:10.2478/10004-1254-64-2013-2360 · Cited by 10
“population of some countries seems to vary between 5 % and 10 % (13-16).”
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Social functioning in first contact mania: Clinical and neurocognitive correlates
Hellvin, T., Sundet, K. S., Aminoff, S. R., Andreassen, O. A., & Melle, I. S. (2013) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.12.016 · Cited by 11
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Lurasidone Dose Response in Bipolar Depression: A Population Dose-response Analysis
Chapel, S. H., Chiu, Y., Hsu, J., Cucchiaro, J. B., & Loebel, A. D. (2015) · Clinical Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2015.11.013 · Cited by 11
Maintenance treatment in bipolar disorder: a focus on aripiprazole
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Major Depressive Disorder
Vittengl, J. R., & Jarrett, R. B. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118528563.wbcbt48 · Cited by 12
The Mental Health Implications of Corporate Social Responsibility: The Significance of the Sense-Making Process and Prosocial Motivation
Kim, B., Kim, M., & Lee, D. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13100870 · Cited by 10
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Background
Longitudinal association of exposure to work-related stress with major depressive disorder and the role of occupational burnout in this association in the general population
Shoman, Y., Ranjbar, S., Strippoli, M. F., von Känel, R., Preisig, M., & Canu, I. G. (2024) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-024-02735-w · Cited by 10
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Linking hearts and minds: understanding the cardiovascular impact of bipolar disorder
Shah, D., Singh, B. P., Varnika, F., Fredrick, F. C., Meda, A. K. R., Aggarwal, K., & Jain, R. (2024) · Future Cardiology · doi:10.1080/14796678.2024.2408944 · Cited by 11
The impact of fatigue and energy on work functioning and impairment in patients with major depressive disorder treated with desvenlafaxine
Sarfati, D., Evans, V. C., Tam, E. M., Woo, C., Iverson, G. L., Yatham, L. N., & Lam, R. W. M. (2017) · International Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/yic.0000000000000192 · Cited by 10
“The emotional, cognitive, and physical symptoms associated with MDD are particularly impairing for occupational functioning (Kessler et al., 2006; Greer et al., 2010).”
Background
Canadian economic impact of improved workplace productivity in patients with major depressive disorder treated with vortioxetine
Lachaîne, J., Beauchemin, C., Bibeau, J., Patenaude, J., Chokka, P. R., Proulx, J., & Bougie, J. K. (2019) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852919000853 · Cited by 11
Predictors of employment status and stability in Bipolar Disorder: Findings from an 8-year longitudinal study
O’Donnell, L. A., Helmuth, M. E., Williams, S., McInnis, M. G., & Ryan, K. A. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.095 · Cited by 10
Marketing depression care management to employers: design of a randomized controlled trial
ROST, K. M., & Marshall, D. (2010) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/1748-5908-5-22 · Cited by 10
“Depression substantially reduces an employee’s ability to work, as evidenced by increased absenteeism [2-5] and reduced productivity at work (hereafter referred to as productivity) [2-7], with annual work costs approaching $24 billion (Y2K$) [1].”
Background
Cognitive therapy to prevent depressive relapse in adults
Vittengl, J. R., & Jarrett, R. B. (2015) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.01.016 · Cited by 10
“, reduced concentration, increased guilt, suicidality), last at least two weeks, and produce significant life interference (e.g., as a student, worker, parent, friend, romantic partner; Kessler et al., 2006).”
Background
Screening for bipolar disorder with self-administered questionnaires: A critique of the concept and a call to stop publishing studies of their performance in psychiatric samples
Zimmerman, M. A. (2017) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22644 · Cited by 11
“Bipolar disorder is a serious illness resulting in significant psychosocial morbidity and excess mortality (Angst, Stassen, Clayton, & Angst, 2002; Kessler et al., 2006; Morgan, Mitchell, and Jablensky, 2005; Ruggero, Chelminski, Young, & Zimmerman, 2007).”
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Bipolar II disorder in context: a review of epidemiology, disability and economic burden
Hadjipavlou, G. A., Bond, D. J., & Yatham, L. N. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139003315.005 · Cited by 9
Neural Foundations of Major Depression
Hamilton, J. P., Furman, D. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2011) · Frontiers in neuroscience · doi:10.1201/b11232-4 · Cited by 9
Real-World Functioning in Psychiatric Outpatients: Predictive Factors
Bozzatello, P., Giordano, B., Montemagni, C., Rocca, P., & Bellino, S. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11154400 · Cited by 9
Interpersonal sensitivity associated with return to work status following sick leave: A cross-sectional study among Japanese workers with major depressive disorder
Ogawa, T., Shigemura, J., Yoshino, A., & Nomura, S. (2012) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2012.10.006 · Cited by 10
“, 2007) and massive economic loss (Greenberg et al., 2003; Kessler et al., 2006).”
The Economic Benefits of Marriage and Family Strengthening Programs
Shamblen, S. R., Gluck, A., Wubbenhorst, W. H., & Collins, D. A. (2018) · Journal of Family and Economic Issues · doi:10.1007/s10834-018-9565-8 · Cited by 9
Employment Interventions for Persons with Mood and Anxiety Disorders
Peer, J. E., & Tenhula, W. N. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0428-7_12 · Cited by 9
“Those workers surveyed commonly reported problems with lack of energy and motivation, decreased confidence and productivity, indecision, and poor concentration, as well as social withdrawal ( Haslam et al. 2005; Michalak et al. 2007).”
BackgroundInfluential
Bipolar-I Depression Outpatient Treatment Quality and Costs in Usual Care Practice
Busch, A. B., MD, Sachs, G. S., Frank, R. G., PhD, Sachs, A. G., & MD (2025) · Psychopharmacology Bulletin · doi:10.64719/pb.4317 · Cited by 9
Development of screening inventories for bipolar disorder at workplace: A diagnostic accuracy study
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“A previous study suggested that more attention should be paid to the screening and the treatment of bipolar disorder at the workplace (Kessler et al., 2006).”
The direct and indirect effects of lurasidone monotherapy on functional improvement among patients with bipolar depression: results from a randomized placebo-controlled trial
Rajagopalan, K., Bacci, E. D., Wyrwich, K. W., Pikalov, A., & Loebel, A. D. (2016) · International Journal of Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40345-016-0049-1 · Cited by 9
“Since clinician-reported measures often do not capture treatment impact on functional status, activities of daily living, or quality of life, all of which are areas that are important in the context of functional impairment for patients (Kessler et al. 2006; Miklowitz 2011; Harvey 2011; Greer et al. 2010), recent emph…”
Background

Authors: Kessler, R. C., Akiskal, H. S., Ames, M., Birnbaum, H., Greenberg, P., .A, R. M., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., Simon, G. E., & Wang, P. S.
Affiliations: Harvard University (US)
ORCID: Kessler, Ronald C.
Merikangas, Kathleen R.
Simon, Gregory E.
Wang, Philip S.
Venue: American Journal of Psychiatry
Publisher: American Psychiatric Association Publishing
Published: 2006-09
Volume: 163
Issue: 9
Pages: 1561-1568
ISSN: 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
1535-7228
DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.9.1561
PMC: PMC1924724
OpenAlex: W2120839478
Cited by: 868
References: 47
Citations by year: 2026: 13 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 64 · 2012: 60
FWCI: 27.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Locations: American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation (R01 DA016558)
John W. Alden Trust
Eli Lilly and Company
Pfizer
GlaxoSmithKline
World Health Organization
Harvard University
Michigan State University
Johns Hopkins University
University of Pittsburgh
National Institutes of Health (5r13mh066849-04, 5r01mh069864-04)
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
College of Engineering, Michigan State University
Pfizer Foundation (R01‐MH069864, R01-DA016558)
Pan American Health Organization
National Institute of Mental Health (R13-MH-066849, U01-MH-60220, MH60220, U13MH066849, U01MH060220, R01‐MH069864)
National Institute on Drug Abuse (K05DA015799, R01DA016558)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Bipolar Disorder and Treatment
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Workplace Health and Well-being
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Keywords: mood disorders, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, employee performance, work impairment, lost workdays, mania, hypomania, prevalence
MeSH terms: Absenteeism, Adolescent, Adult, Bipolar Disorder, Costs and Cost Analysis, Major Depressive Disorder, Depressive Disorder, Major, Efficiency, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Occupations, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Surveys and Questionnaires, Task Performance and Analysis, United States, Work, Comorbidity, Prevalence, Workplace, Mood Disorders

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Prevalence and Effects of Mood Disorders on Work Performance in a Nationally Representative Sample of U.S. Workers

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