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Prevalence and Effects of Mood Disorders on Work Performance in a Nationally Representative Sample of U.S. Workers
Open accessAbstract
Objective: Research on the workplace costs of mood disorders has focused largely on major depressive episodes. Bipolar disorder has been overlooked both because of the failure to distinguish between major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder and by the failure to evaluate the workplace costs of mania/hypomania. Method: The National Comorbidity Survey Replication assessed major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder with the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) and work impairment with the WHO Health and Work Performance Questionnaire. A regression analysis of major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder predicting Health and Work Performance Questionnaire scores among 3,378 workers was used to estimate the workplace costs of mood disorders. Results: A total of 1.1% of the workers met CIDI criteria for 12-month bipolar disorder (I or II), and 6.4% meet criteria for 12-month major depressive disorder. Bipolar disorder was associated with 65.5 and major depressive disorder with 27.2 lost workdays per ill worker per year. Subgroup analysis showed that the higher work loss associated with bipolar disorder than with major depressive disorder was due to more severe and persistent depressive episodes in those with bipolar disorder than in those with major depressive disorder rather than to stronger effects of mania/hypomania than depression. Conclusions: Employer interest in workplace costs of mood disorders should be broadened beyond major depressive disorder to include bipolar disorder. Effectiveness trials are needed to study the return on employer investment of coordinated programs for workplace screening and treatment of bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder.
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“Among people with specific social and productive roles, MDD is found to predict significant decrements in role functioning (e.g., low marital quality, low work performance, low earnings).”
From The Costs of Depression (2012) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“All these studies found that MDE and MDD significantly predict overall lost work performance. Several studies attempted to estimate the annual salary-equivalent human capital value of these losses. These estimates were in the range $30.1 billion66 to $51.5 billion.64”
From The Costs of Depression (2012) · cites this paper as [64]
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“Impaired cognition is likely associated with difficulties in everyday tasks contributing to the high degree of psychosocial and functional impairments [6–8], reduced productivity [9], and disability associated with MDD [10, 11].”
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Chapter 10. Role of Cognition in Stress-Induced and Fear Circuitry Disorders
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“BD diagnosis itself can impair work performance and increase the likelihood of job loss (Dean et al., 2004; Kessler et al., 2006), creating a vicious cycle between unemployment and worsening mental health.”
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“This is likely due to the documented impact on both mental and physical health for individuals (e.g., numerous lost days of work productivity, billions of dollars lost in salaryequivalence productivity; Kessler et al., 2006; depression as the leading cause of disability for American adults; NIH, 2009).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kessler, R. C., Akiskal, H. S., Ames, M., Birnbaum, H., Greenberg, P., .A, R. M., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., Simon, G. E., & Wang, P. S.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 2006-09
- Volume
- 163
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1561-1568
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- PMC
- PMC1924724
- OpenAlex
- W2120839478
- Cited by
- 868
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 64 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 27.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation (R01 DA016558)
- John W. Alden Trust
- Eli Lilly and Company
- Pfizer
- GlaxoSmithKline
- World Health Organization
- Harvard University
- Michigan State University
- Johns Hopkins University
- University of Pittsburgh
- National Institutes of Health (5r13mh066849-04, 5r01mh069864-04)
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
- College of Engineering, Michigan State University
- Pfizer Foundation (R01‐MH069864, R01-DA016558)
- Pan American Health Organization
- National Institute of Mental Health (R13-MH-066849, U01-MH-60220, MH60220, U13MH066849, U01MH060220, R01‐MH069864)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (K05DA015799, R01DA016558)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Bipolar Disorder and Treatment
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Workplace Health and Well-being
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- mood disorders, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, employee performance, work impairment, lost workdays, mania, hypomania, prevalence
- MeSH terms
- Absenteeism, Adolescent, Adult, Bipolar Disorder, Costs and Cost Analysis, Major Depressive Disorder, Depressive Disorder, Major, Efficiency, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Occupations, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Surveys and Questionnaires, Task Performance and Analysis, United States, Work, Comorbidity, Prevalence, Workplace, Mood Disorders
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