The DOI matches its Crossref record; 64 of the 68 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 40 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment
Open accessAbstract
Decades of racial progress have led some researchers and policymakers to doubt that discrimination remains an important cause of economic inequality. To study contemporary discrimination, we conducted a field experiment in the low-wage labor market of New York City, recruiting white, black, and Latino job applicants who were matched on demographic characteristics and interpersonal skills. These applicants were given equivalent résumés and sent to apply in tandem for hundreds of entry-level jobs. Our results show that black applicants were half as likely as equally qualified whites to receive a callback or job offer. In fact, black and Latino applicants with clean backgrounds fared no better than white applicants just released from prison. Additional qualitative evidence from our applicants' experiences further illustrates the multiple points at which employment trajectories can be deflected by various forms of racial bias. These results point to the subtle yet systematic forms of discrimination that continue to shape employment opportunities for low-wage workers.
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Claims the paper makes
65 Own interpretation · 59 Own result · 25 Own method · 14 Sources not found · 11 No basis given · 9 No full text of the sources · 4 Supported · 3 Not checked yet · 1 Supported so far
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Pager found that a black applicant with no criminal background experiences job prospects similar to those of a white felon.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF LOW-WAGE LABOR MARKETS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Pager 2003 source
In “The Effect of Race” (p. 22), Pager reports favorable treatment for 17% of white applicants with criminal records and 14% of black applicants without criminal records. The accompanying footnote says the difference was not statistically significant, supporting the claim that their job prospects were similar in the Milwaukee experiment. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Ironically, however, achieving perfect matches can itself produce distortions in the hiring process. Because audit partners are matched on all characteristics that are most directly relevant to hiring decisions (e.g., education, work experience, and physical attributes), employers may be forced to privilege relatively minor characteristics simply out of necessity to break a tie (Heckman 1998:111).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Heckman 1998:111 source
In “The Implicit Assumptions Behind the Audit Method” (page unavailable in our copy), Heckman says that making audit pairs as alike as possible can cause observed differences in hiring rates to arise from idiosyncratic factors rather than the main factors driving labor markets. This supports the citing sentence’s point that close matching can make relatively minor characteristics consequential to hiring outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.86)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Replicating earlier results from Milwaukee (Pager 2003), these findings suggest that New York employers view minority applicants as essentially equivalent to whites just out of prison.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Pager 2003 source
The citation identifies the earlier Milwaukee result, not the citing authors’ New York findings. In the Discussion (p. 24), Pager reports that black applicants without criminal records received less employer consideration than white applicants with prior felony convictions, supporting the comparison the citing sentence says the New York findings replicate. (LLM, conf=0.92)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Our findings for the New York City labor market add to evidence of racial discrimination in employment reported from recent field experiments in Milwaukee, Boston, and Chicago (Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004; Pager 2003).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004 source
- Supportedcites Pager 2003 source
Pager reports racial differences in hiring callbacks in the Milwaukee field experiment (The Effect of Race, p. 21). The Limits to Generalizability section (p. 29) also identifies a separate study in Boston and Chicago, matching the cities in the jointly cited sentence; Pager supports the Milwaukee portion. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, black and Latino applicants with clean backgrounds fared no better than white applicants just released from prison.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results show that black applicants were half as likely as equally qualified whites to receive a callback or job offer.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additional qualitative evidence from our applicants’ experiences further illustrates the multiple points at which employment trajectories can be deflected by various forms of racial bias.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, we find no evidence that testers’ interpersonal styles or expectations are associated with increasing discrimination”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These cases of categorical exclusion, although directly observed in only a small number of audits (5 of the 47 cases of differential treatment across the two teams), reveal one form of discrimination in which racial considerations appear relatively fixed and unyielding.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION
plainn = 47- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here again, we observed several hiring decisions in which race appeared to be the sole or primary source of differentiation.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 41
- It may state two separate claims as one. 73
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Heckman (1998:101–102) puts the point most clearly, writing that “most of the disparity in earnings between blacks and whites in the labor market of the 1990s is due to differences in skills they bring to the market, and not to discrimination within the labor market.””
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > Abstract
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Heckman 1998 source
The Abstract states the quoted conclusion directly: Heckman attributes most of the 1990s black–white earnings disparity to differences in skills rather than discrimination within the labor market. It also says labor-market discrimination was no longer a first-order quantitative problem, while acknowledging that discriminatory intentions persisted; this supports the earlier-era characterization only if it does not imply discrimination had disappeared. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results, although sensitive to small sample sizes for some combinations, tend to support the consistency of effects across a number of tester comparisons.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Race-based job channeling represents a process by which minority applicants are steered toward particular job types, often those characterized by greater physical demands and reduced customer contact.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE AT WORK: AN EXAMINATION OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN APPLICANTS AND EMPLOYERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, of the 171 tests conducted by the first team (no criminal background), white testers were singled out for callbacks or job offers 15 times, whereas there was only a single case in which a black tester received a positive response when his white or Latino partner did not.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this experiment, whites with criminal records obtained positive responses in 17.2 percent of 169 job applications, compared with 15.4 percent for Latinos and 13.0 percent for blacks.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Zuri returned to the bus stop, while his white and Latino test partners were both asked to come back at 5 p.m. that day to start work.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“if anything, personal contact appears to weaken the effect of race, suggesting that testers’ performance minimized, rather than exaggerated, our measures of racial bias”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As in the previous experiment, Latinos were preferred to blacks, but here the difference is not significant.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Likewise, this typology cannot account for all of the differential treatment we observe—at least half of the employer decisions were made on the basis of little or no personal contact between applicant and employer, leaving the nature of the decision entirely unobserved.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE AT WORK: AN EXAMINATION OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN APPLICANTS AND EMPLOYERS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The white-black ratio is now a statistically insignificant 1.32, compared with a significant ratio of 2.04 when the white tester had a clean record.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, the white-black ratio of 2.04 is substantively large and statistically significant.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Figure 2b shows that the white-Latino ratio is close to one and the confidence interval overlaps one by a large margin.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The white testers’ racial advantage narrows substantially in this comparison; yet the white applicant with a criminal record still does just as well, if not better, than his minority counterparts with no criminal background.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All ratios remain consistently greater than one, indicating that employers treat blacks less positively regardless of which testers are applying for jobs.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first type of behavior, categorical exclusion, is characterized by an immediate or automatic rejection of the black (or minority) candidate in favor of a white applicant. Occurring early in the application process, these decisions involve little negotiated interaction but appear to reflect a fairly rigid application of employers’ racial preferences or beliefs.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE AT WORK: AN EXAMINATION OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN APPLICANTS AND EMPLOYERS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, three categories of behavior stand out, which we refer to here as: categorical exclusion, shifting standards, and race-coded job channeling.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE AT WORK: AN EXAMINATION OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN APPLICANTS AND EMPLOYERS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Joe, one of our black testers, reported that, “[the employer] said the position was just filled and that she would be calling people in for an interview if the person doesn’t work out.””
- Also stated in: § CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION · plain
“By contrast, Simon, their white test partner, who applied last, had a notably different experience: “I asked what the hiring process was—if they’re taking applications now, interviewing, etc. She looked at my application. ‘You can start immediately?’Yes. ‘Can you start tomorrow?’Yes. ‘10 a.m.’”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with the notion that contemporary forms of discrimination are largely subtle and covert, many cases contain little that would lead us to anticipate the differential treatment that followed.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE AT WORK: AN EXAMINATION OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN APPLICANTS AND EMPLOYERS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“I told her I was there to apply for the waiter position and she told me that there were no server positions. I told her it was advertised in the paper, and she said there must have been a mistake. She said all she had available was a busboy position.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minority applicants were disqualified more readily and hired more reluctantly than their white partners with identical skills and experience.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The sample includes many restaurants and independent retailers for whom hiring is less bureaucratic, and who lack the human resource departments that manage the equal employment opportunity obligations of large firms (Dobbin et al. 1993).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Dobbin et al. 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The testers were college-educated young men with effective styles of self-presentation. Although posing as high school graduates with more limited skills, these young men stood well above the typical applicant for these low-wage jobs.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although testers’ résumés were matched on education and work experience, some employers seemed to weigh qualifications differently depending on the applicant’s race.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > SHIFTING STANDARDS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Blacks were only half as likely to receive a callback or job offer relative to equally qualified whites; moreover, black and Latino applicants with clean backgrounds fared no better than a white applicant just released from prison.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The episodes of discrimination recorded in this study were seldom characterized by overt racism or hostility. In fact, our testers rarely perceived any signs of clear prejudice.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black applicants were channeled into lower positions in nine cases, Latinos were channeled down in five cases, and whites experienced downward channeling in only one case.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
plaincorrelationaln = 9- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In one case, Joe, a black tester, was not allowed to apply for a sales position due to his lack of direct experience.”
- Also stated in: § SHIFTING STANDARDS · plain
“Yet, despite their evident lack of qualifications, Kevin and Josue were offered the sales job and asked to come back the next morning.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > SHIFTING STANDARDS
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § SHIFTING STANDARDS · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the one hand, personal contact with employers was associated with significantly improved outcomes for all testers and a narrowing of the racial gap (see Appendix, Table A1).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > SHIFTING STANDARDS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When she asked what position I was looking for I said I was open, but that since they were looking for a salesperson I would be interested in that. She smiled, put her head in her hand and her elbow on the table and said, ‘I need a stock boy. Can you do stock boy?’”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A pattern in these interactions, when compared side by side, is the use of double standards—seeking higher qualifications from blacks than non-blacks, or viewing whites as more qualified than minorities who present equivalent résumés.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > SHIFTING STANDARDS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the testers had direct experience with kitchen work, but the white and Latino applicants were viewed as viable prospects while the black applicant was rejected because he lacked experience.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > SHIFTING STANDARDS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, whites were more often channeled up than down. In at least six cases, white testers were encouraged to apply for jobs that were of a higher-level or required more customer contact than the initial position they inquired about.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
plaincorrelationaln = 6- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Simon, their white test partner, presented identical qualifications, but the employer responded more favorably: “‘To be honest, we’re looking for someone with specific moving experience. But because you’ve worked for [a storage company], that has a little to do with moving.’ He wanted me to come in tomorrow between 10 and 11.””
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > SHIFTING STANDARDS
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“She then told me that there was a stock position and asked if I would be interested in that.” Josue was offered the stocker job and asked to start the next day.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This lack of experience was not grounds for disqualification for the white and Latino candidates, whereas the black applicant was readily dismissed.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > SHIFTING STANDARDS
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Economic theory predicts the decline of discrimination through market competition (Becker 1957), but several features of contemporary low-wage labor markets may sustain or renew racialized decision making.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF LOW-WAGE LABOR MARKETS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Becker 1957
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Theories of both statistical discrimination and stereotypes view race as a heuristic employers use to evaluate job applicants about whom little is known. Here, group-based generalizations provide guidance about the expected profile of individuals from a given group and facilitate decision making when information or time are scarce (Aigner and Cain 1977; Fiske 1998).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > CONCEPTUALIZING DISCRIMINATION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Aigner and Cain 1977 source
- Not matchedcites Fiske 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“A series of studies relying on surveys and in-depth interviews finds that firms are reluctant to hire young minority men—especially blacks—because they are seen as unreliable, dishonest, or lacking in social or cognitive skills (Holzer 1996; Kirschenman and Neckerman 1991; Moss and Tilly 2001; Waldinger and Lichter 2003; Wilson 1996: chap. 5).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Holzer 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kirschenman and Neckerman 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Moss and Tilly 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, even relatively small episodes of discrimination—when experienced at multiple intervals or across multiple contexts—can have substantial effects on aggregate outcomes.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > CONCEPTUALIZING DISCRIMINATION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“employers consistently express concerns over the “soft skills” of black men, implying a potential skills mismatch between the skill requirements of new job growth and the perceived skill profile of black male job seekers.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF LOW-WAGE LABOR MARKETS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Moss and Tilly 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this scenario, discrimination may obtain not at the employer level but at the job level, with black applicants excluded from some job types and channeled into others.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > CONCEPTUALIZING DISCRIMINATION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Decision making under uncertainty and the race-typing of jobs both make discrimination more likely.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > CONCEPTUALIZING DISCRIMINATION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Clear answers are elusive because discrimination is hard to measure. Without observing actual hiring decisions, it is difficult to assess exactly how and under what conditions race shapes employer behavior.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Previous research points to the negative consequences of the changing composition of low-wage jobs for black men, with the shift from manufacturing to services skewing the distribution of skill demands toward “soft skills,” for which black men are considered lacking (Moss and Tilly 2001).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > CONCEPTUALIZING DISCRIMINATION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Moss and Tilly 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They find that two thirds of the black-white gap in wages in 1990 to 1991 can be explained by race differences in cognitive test scores measured 11 years earlier, and test scores fully explain wage differences between whites and Latinos.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Neal and Johnson 1996 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Jobs at the “back of the house” or those emphasizing manual skills are less likely to activate concerns of this kind.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > CONCEPTUALIZING DISCRIMINATION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whether based on statistical generalizations or inaccurate stereotypes, preconceived notions about the characteristics or desirability of black men relative to other applicant types are likely to structure the distribution of opportunity along racial lines.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF LOW-WAGE LABOR MARKETS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The growing importance of soft skills, ethnic heterogeneity, and job seekers with criminal records suggest the persistence or increasing incidence of discrimination in contemporary low-wage labor markets.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF LOW-WAGE LABOR MARKETS
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Nearly a third of black men without a college degree have prison records by their mid-30s, adding to employers’ reservations about black male job applicants (Pager 2007b; Pettit and Western 2004).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF LOW-WAGE LABOR MARKETS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Pager 2007b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pettit and Western 2004 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In reality, discrimination may occur at multiple decision points across the employment relationship.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > CONCEPTUALIZING DISCRIMINATION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Interviews with employers in Los Angeles and Chicago suggest consistent preferences for Latinos over blacks, with Latino workers viewed as more pliant, reliable, and hard-working (Kirschenman and Neckerman 1991; Waldinger and Lichter 2003).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF LOW-WAGE LABOR MARKETS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kirschenman and Neckerman 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Waldinger and Lichter 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“We generalize their approach to our matched triplets, fitting a random effect for each employer.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ghosh et al. 2000
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To assess the sensitivity of our results to each tester, we perform a type of cross-validation in which the treatment effect is recalculated for a reduced data set, sequentially omitting those employers associated with each individual tester.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, we recalculate our key results for each unique combination of testers matched in teams over the course of the fieldwork (see Appendix Table A2).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Résumés were prepared in different fonts and formats and randomly varied across testers, with each résumé used by testers from each race group.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The design of our study, which focuses on the early stages of the hiring process, avoids situations in which employers must choose only a single applicant.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Testers in each team applied to each job within a 24-hour period, randomly varying the order of the applicants.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Current estimates suggest that roughly 18 percent of young black men with high school degrees will experience incarceration by their early 30s (Pettit and Western 2004), and a larger fraction surely have lower level convictions and arrests.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pettit and Western 2004 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We allow for this possibility by fitting an additional random effect for each tester in our hierarchical logistic regression.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, the testers passed a common training program to ensure uniform behavior in job interviews.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each week, we randomly drew job listings from the classified sections of the New York Times, Daily News, New York Post, Village Voice, and the online service Craigslist.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fortunately, the in-person design of the experiment allows us to further supplement the experimental findings with qualitative evidence from testers’ field notes that report their interactions in job interviews.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE AT WORK: AN EXAMINATION OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN APPLICANTS AND EMPLOYERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While ex-offenders are disadvantaged in the labor market relative to applicants with no criminal background, the stigma of a felony conviction appears to be no greater than that of minority status.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We reviewed more than 300 applicants to identify our final team of 10 testers.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By using “callbacks” as one of our key dependent variables, we include cases that represent an employer’s first pass at applicant screening.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because race cannot be experimentally assigned, researchers must rely on effective selection and matching to construct audit teams in which all relevant characteristics of testers are similar—something that may leave substantial room for bias.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The employer effects, αi, induce a correlation among observations from the same employers and reduce standard errors, as in the usual matched-pair inference.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Theories of statistical discrimination point to the very high incarceration rates among young black men as a key explanation for employers’ indifference between white felons and blacks with potentially unobserved criminal histories.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The job is a manual position for which Zuri is at least as able, yet he is readily passed over in favor of his white and Latino counterparts.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) remove tester effects in a “correspondence test” that sent résumés with common white and black names to employers in Boston and Chicago. Their design allows the random assignment of résumé characteristics to white- and black-sounding names, largely removing concerns about unobserved characteristics.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Testers were assigned fictitious résumés indicating identical educational attainment and comparable qualities of high school, work experience (quantity and kind), and neighborhood of residence.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Heckman and Siegelman (1993) argue that researchers know little about the hard-to-observe characteristics highly prized by employers.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Heckman and Siegelman (1993)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They were matched on the basis of their verbal skills, interactional styles (level of eye contact, demeanor, and verbosity), and physical attractiveness.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To help ensure comparability, the Latino testers spoke in unaccented English, were U.S. citizens of Puerto Rican descent, and, like the other testers, claimed no Spanish language ability.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each tester passed a standard training period, was required to dress uniformly, and was subject to periodic spot checks for quality control.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If race represents only a minor concern for employers, we would expect all members of our audit team to make it through the first cut. If race figures prominently in the first round of review, we can infer that this characteristic has been invoked as more than a mere tie-breaker.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Confidence intervals below are based on models that include employer and tester random effects.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS > THE PROBLEMS OF MATCHING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At multiple points in the hiring process, black (or Latino) applicants face additional hurdles or barriers that reduce their chances of employment and affect the quality of jobs for which they are considered.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, our sampled employers well represent the kinds of low-skill service work that dominate low-wage urban labor markets.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, racialized assessments of applicant quality and “fit” affect not only the decision to hire, but also decisions about job placement, with minority applicants more often channeled into positions involving less skill or customer contact.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with the testers’ field notes, employers appear to apply more stringent hiring criteria to minority workers, preferring whites for jobs that require greater skill or responsibility.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The significant evidence of discrimination found in these studies contrasts sharply with recent survey research showing small racial differences in wages (Farkas and Vicknair 1996; Neal and Johnson 1996).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If discrimination discourages all but the most motivated and able black job seekers, black wage earners would represent an increasingly select group.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Episodes of discrimination may not only cause unemployment at one point in time, but may have long-term effects that weaken minority workers’ attachment to the labor market and reduce labor force participation.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effects of discrimination may also vary across the population, concentrating perhaps among the young men whose employment rates are lowest.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Categorical exclusion represents one important form of discrimination. While these rather abrupt interactions reveal little about the underlying motivation that drives employers’ decisions, they do demonstrate the sometimes rigid barriers facing minority job seekers.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The testers’ interpersonal skills seemed to reduce the influence of racial bias, or at least did not exacerbate it.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > SHIFTING STANDARDS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our testers’ experiences suggest how race shapes employers’ evaluations in subtle but systematic ways, with important implications for structuring opportunity along racial lines.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In evaluating applicant qualifications, minority applicants, and black men in particular, appear to be held to a higher standard than their white counterparts. Black men are disqualified more readily, or hired more reluctantly, than their white partners with identical skills and experience.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, the experience of discrimination may add to the psychic costs of the job search process, prompting some to opt out altogether.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Since the 1990s, increasing numbers of young black men have dropped out of the formal labor market, contributing to an artificial convergence of black and white wages (Western and Pettit 2005).”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Western and Pettit 2005 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Discrimination may produce broad cultural effects in which work itself is de-legitimated as a fair source of opportunity.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings add to a large research program demonstrating the continuing contribution of discrimination to racial inequality in the post-civil rights era.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The audit experiment necessarily focuses on employers’ hiring behaviors but does not examine the skills, preferences, and networks of job seekers.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the same time, while we find robust evidence of racial discrimination, we should be careful not to interpret these results as showing the level of discrimination actively experienced by minority job seekers in the New York labor market.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We do not know, and few research designs have been devised to test, the relative magnitude of the effects of discrimination compared with the effects of human and social capital.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In many cases, these instances of channeling suggest a race-coding of job types, whereby employers prefer whites for certain positions and minorities for others.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS > RACE-CODED JOB CHANNELING
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These dynamics can lead to longer search or wait times for minority job seekers, which might not be reflected in ultimate wage offers.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The experiment allows us to infer discrimination with great certainty, but the effects of discrimination are narrowly defined.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The broader effects of discrimination—on the cultural dimensions of economic life and over the life course—are harder to pinpoint but may indicate more fundamental and intractable inequalities.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Employers appeared to see more potential in the stated qualifications of white applicants, and they more commonly viewed white applicants as a better fit for more desirable jobs.”
§ Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment > DISCUSSION
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
A criminal record can serve as an extreme and authoritative signal of the problematic behaviors employers attribute to young black men.
“we can view a criminal record as an extreme and authoritative signal of the kinds of problematic behaviors that employers ascribe to young black men”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Discrimination in hiring practices by employers has played a significant role in perpetuating these racial disparities, constructing social barriers towards stable and long-term employment (Fryer, Pager, and Spenkuch 2013; Pager, Bonikowski, and Western 2009).”
From Beyond the Great Recession: Labor Market Polarization and Ongoing Fertility Decline in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Pager, Bonikowski, and Western 2009
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Citations
Cites
Southwestern Social Science Association (2010) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/(issn)1540-6237 · Cited by 13,619
Hapeman, D. E., & Agresti, A. (1991) · Technometrics · doi:10.1080/00401706.1991.10484817 · Cited by 9,407
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 9,020
DeLamater, J., & Ward, A. (2013) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0 · Cited by 7,590
Moffitt, R. (2009) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.99.2.660 · Cited by 4,888
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-3182 · Cited by 4,740
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/0002828042002561 · Cited by 4,504
The Economics of Discrimination.
Collard, D. A., & Becker, G. S. (1972) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.2307/2230052 · Cited by 3,642
When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor.
Scott, D. M., & Wilson, W. J. (1998) · African American Review · doi:10.2307/3042249 · Cited by 3,616
Wilson, W. J. (1996) · Political Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2152085 · Cited by 3,111
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- Altonji Joseph G., 2001, Journal of Economics, 116, 313
- Ghosh Malay, 2000, Statistica Sinica, 10, 647
- Heckman James, 1993, Clear and Convincing Evidence: Measurement of Discrimination in America, 187
- Johnson William, 1998, Black-White Test Score Differences, 480
- Kirschenman Joleen, 1991, The Urban Underclass, 203
- Roscigno Vincent J., 2007, The New Black: Alternative Paradigms and Strategies for the 21st Century Research in Race and Ethnic Relations, 14, 131
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Metadata
- Authors
- Pager, D., Bonikowski, B., & Western, B.
- Affiliations
- Princeton University (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Pager, Devah
- Venue
- American Sociological Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2009-10
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 777-799
- ISSN
- 0003-1224 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-8271
- PMC
- PMC2915472
- OpenAlex
- W2126179497
- Semantic Scholar
- 641b12df54a3d853bad273bf5fed2c0965936f83
- Cited by
- 1,022
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 63 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 75 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 75 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 63 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 101.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Sociological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R24HD047879, K01HD053694)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Labor market dynamics and wage inequality
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Urban, Neighborhood, and Segregation Studies
- Keywords
- racial discrimination, low-wage labor market, hiring discrimination, resume screening, callbacks, job offers, Black applicants, post-release recidivism, employment trajectories, New York City
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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