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Cited by 88Gender Roles and Identity StudiesGender and Feminist StudiesSocial and Intergroup Psychology

Psychometric Properties and Correlates of Precarious Manhood Beliefs in 62 Nations

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Bosson, Jennifer K., Jurek, Paweł, Vandello, Joseph A., Kosakowska-Berezecka, Natasza, Olech, Michał, Besta, Tomasz, Bender, Michael, Hoorens, Vera +154 more·2021·Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
DOI 10.1177/0022022121997997
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Abstract

Precarious manhood beliefs portray manhood, relative to womanhood, as a social status that is hard to earn, easy to lose, and proven via public action. Here, we present cross-cultural data on a brief measure of precarious manhood beliefs (the Precarious Manhood Beliefs scale [PMB]) that covaries meaningfully with other cross-culturally validated gender ideologies and with country-level indices of gender equality and human development. Using data from university samples in 62 countries across 13 world regions ( N = 33,417), we demonstrate: (1) the psychometric isomorphism of the PMB (i.e., its comparability in meaning and statistical properties across the individual and country levels); (2) the PMB’s distinctness from, and associations with, ambivalent sexism and ambivalence toward men; and (3) associations of the PMB with nation-level gender equality and human development. Findings are discussed in terms of their statistical and theoretical implications for understanding widely-held beliefs about the precariousness of the male gender role.

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  • Masculinity, and being a "real man," is not an inherent trait but a socially constructed status that must be continuously proven and validated by others.

    “According to the theory of precarious manhood, masculinity, and being a “real man,” is not an inherent trait but a socially constructed status that must be continuously proven and validated by others (Bosson & Vandello, 2011; Bosson et al., 2021;Vandello et al., 2008).”

    From A Sexist Language? Gender Differences in Attitudes and Use of Gender-Inclusive Pronouns (2025) · cites this paper as Bosson et al., 2021

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Bosson, J. K., Jurek, P., Vandello, J. A., Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Olech, M., Besta, T., Bender, M., Hoorens, V., Becker, M., Timur Sevincer, A., Best, D. L., Safdar, S., Włodarczyk, A., Zawisza, M., Żadkowska, M., Abuhamdeh, S., Badu Agyemang, C., Akbaş, G., Albayrak-Aydemir, N., Ammirati, S., Anderson, J., Anjum, G., Ariyanto, A., Jamir Benzon R. Aruta, J., Ashraf, M., Bakaitytė, A., Bertolli, C., Bërxulli, D., Bi, C., Block, K., Boehnke, M., Bongiorno, R., Bosak, J., Casini, A., Chen, Q., Chi, P., Cubela Adoric, V., Daalmans, S., Dandy, J., Lemus, S. D., Dhakal, S., Dvorianchikov, N., Egami, S., Etchezahar, E., Sofia Esteves, C., Felix, N., Froehlich, L., Garcia-Sanchez, E., Gavreliuc, A., Gavreliuc, D., Gomez, Á., Guizzo, F., Graf, S., Greijdanus, H., Grigoryan, A., Grzymała-Moszczyńska, J., Guerch, K., Gustafsson Sendén, M., Hale, M.-L., Hämer, H., Hirai, M., Hoang Duc, L., Hřebíčková, M., Hutchings, P. B., Høj Jensen, D., Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., Karabati, S., Kelmendi, K., Kengyel, G., Khachatryan, N., Ghazzawi, R., Kinahan, M., Kirby, T. A., Kovács, M., Kozlowski, D., Krivoshchekov, V., Kulich, C., Kurosawa, T., Thi Lac An, N., Labarthe, J., Latu, I., Anne Lauri, M., Mankowski, E., Musbau Lawal, A., Li, J., Lindner, J., Lindqvist, A., Maitner, A. T., Makarova, E., Makashvili, A., Malayeri, S., Malik, S., Mancini, T., Manzi, C., Mari, S., Martiny, S. E., Mayer, C.-H., Mihić, V., Milošević Đorđević, J., Moreno-Bella, E., Moscatelli, S., Bryan Moynihan, A., Muller, D., Narhetali, E., Neto, F., Noels, K. A., Nyúl, B., O’Connor, E. C., Ochoa, D. P., Ohno, S., Olanrewaju Adebayo, S., Osborne, R., Giuseppina Pacilli, M., Palacio, J., Patnaik, S., Pavlopoulos, V., Pérez de León, P., Piterová, I., Barreiros Porto, J., Puzio, A., Pyrkosz-Pacyna, J., Rentería Pérez, E., Renström, E., Rousseaux, T., Ryan, M. K., Sainz, M., Salvati, M., Samekin, A., Schindler, S., Seydi, M., Shepherd, D., Sherbaji, S., Schmader, T., Simão, C., Sobhie, R., Souza, L. D., Sarter, E., Sulejmanović, D., Sullivan, K. E., Tatsumi, M., Tavitian-Elmadjian, L., Jain Thakur, S., Thi Mong Chi, Q., Torre, B., Torres, A., Torres, C. V., Türkoğlu, B., Ungaretti, J., Valshtein, T., Van Laar, C., van der Noll, J., Vasiutynskyi, V., Vauclair, C.-M., Venäläinen, S., Vohra, N., Walentynowicz, M., Ward, C., Yang, Y., Yzerbyt, V., Zanello, V., Ludmila Zapata-Calvente, A., & Žukauskienė, R.
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  • Université de Toulouse (FR)
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Corresponding author
Bosson, Jennifer K.
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2021-03-04
Volume
52
Issue
3
Pages
231-258
ISSN
  • 0022-0221 (ISSN-L)
  • 1552-5422
DOI
10.1177/0022022121997997
OpenAlex
W3135579898
Cited by
88
References
4
Citations by year
2026: 10 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 5
FWCI
16.68
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) (publishedVersion)
  • Maynooth University ePrints and eTheses Archive (Maynooth University) (acceptedVersion)
  • University Of Wales Trinity Saint David Research Repository (University of Wales Trinity Saint David) (acceptedVersion)
  • Espacio Tiempo y Forma Serie I Prehistoria y Arqueología (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (acceptedVersion)
  • Anglia Ruskin Research Online (Anglia Ruskin University) (submittedVersion)
  • Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
  • Research Online (Edith Cowan University) (submittedVersion)
  • Homo Politicus (Academy of Humanities and Economics in Lodz) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • HAL (submittedVersion)
  • BOA (University of Milano-Bicocca) (submittedVersion)
  • BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
  • Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Digital Access to Libraries (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Institutional Repository of the University of Granada (University of Granada) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Dublin City University Open Access Institutional Repository (Dublin City University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
  • edoc (University of Basel) (submittedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion)
  • IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion)
  • Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
  • NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
  • Research Portal (Queen's University Belfast) (submittedVersion)
  • Repositório do ISCTE-IUL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Research Space (submittedVersion)
  • Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Padua Research Archive (University of Padova) (submittedVersion)
  • University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders
  • Grantová Agentura České Republiky (GA20-01214S, 68081740)
  • Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (PSI2016-79971-P)
  • Akademie Věd České Republiky (68081740)
  • Vetenskapsrådet
  • Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia
  • National Institutes of Health
  • Economic and Social Research Council (ES/S00274X/1)
  • National Institute of General Medical Sciences (RL5GM118963)
  • H2020 European Research Council (725128)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords
gender ideology, masculinity, gender equality, human development, ambivalent sexism, cross-cultural measurement, psychometric invariance, gender roles

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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