A Sexist Language? Gender Differences in Attitudes and Use of Gender-Inclusive Pronouns

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In many languages, pronouns have traditionally only recognized women and men, but gender-inclusive pronouns introduce a third option.

“In many languages, pronouns have traditionally only recognized women and men, but gender-inclusive pronouns introduce a third option (Renström, 2025).”

• cites Renström, 2025 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The use of gender-inclusive pronouns, such as hen in Swedish and singular they in English, corresponds to the de-gendering and multi-gendering strategies.

“The use of gender-inclusive pronouns, such as hen in Swedish and singular they in English, corresponds to these two strategies (Renström, 2025; Renström & Klysing, 2024).”

• cites Renström, 2025 sourceSupported
• cites Renström & Klysing, 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The binary conceptualization of gender assumes a direct alignment between one's sex assigned at birth (female or male) and one's gender identity (self-defined).

“This conceptualization assumes a direct alignment between one's sex assigned at birth (female or male) and one's gender identity (self-defined) (Lindqvist et al., 2020).”

• cites Lindqvist et al., 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Traditionally, gender has been conceptualized as binary, consisting of the two mutually exclusive categories women and men.

“Traditionally, gender has been conceptualized as binary, consisting of the two mutually exclusive categories women and men.”

• cites Lindqvist et al., 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The implementation of hen was met with resistance from the public.

“the implementation of hen was met with resistance from the public (Bäck et al., 2018; Vergoossen et al., 2020)”

• cites Bäck et al., 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Vergoossen et al., 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A growing body of research has highlighted a relatively recent backlash in some Western countries toward gender equality and modern sexism, in particular among younger men.

“A growing body of research has highlighted a relatively recent backlash in some Western countries toward gender equality and modern sexism, in particular among younger men (e.g. Off et al., 2022).”

• cites Off et al., 2022 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Previous research suggests that the ideological underpinnings of resistance may differ depending on the strategy and that individuals who prefer a traditional, binary view of gender may be more concerned with the multi-gendering strategy of gender-inclusive pronouns.

“Previous research suggests that the ideological underpinnings of resistance may differ depending on the strategy and that individuals who prefer a traditional, binary view of gender may be more concerned with the multi-gendering strategy of gender-inclusive pronouns (Renström, 2025; Renström & Klysing, 2024).”

• cites Renström, 2025 sourceSupported
• cites Renström & Klysing, 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Even small changes in pronoun attitudes and use might have a substantial impact for individuals and/or for society at large.

“even small changes in pronoun attitudes and use might have a substantial impact for individuals and/or for society at large (Lindqvist et al., 2018; Renström et al., 2024).”

• cites Lindqvist et al., 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The General Discussion (page unavailable) reports that using newly created gender-neutral pronouns seemed to eliminate male bias in language comprehension, and Practice Implications (page unavailable) suggests gender-fair language can have applied effects. The paper does not establish that small changes in pronoun attitudes or use have a substantial impact on individuals or society at large. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Renström et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In the collapsed dataset, 63.9% of participants indicated they never used hen in either writing or speaking, whereas 30.7% reported using hen at least occasionally in writing and/or speaking.

“For the use of hen, 63.9% of participants indicated they never used hen in either writing or speaking (rating of 1 on writing and speaking), whereas 30.7% reported using hen at least occasionally in writing and/or speaking (ratings of 2 to 5).”

May combine two claims.

Women were on average more positive toward hen and reported slightly more use of hen compared to men.

“As can be seen, women were on average more positive toward hen and reported slightly more use of hen, compared to men.”

• Also stated in: § Results · plain

  “Men were more negative toward hen and used hen less compared to women.”

• Also stated in: § Discussion · plain

  “The results showed that men, regardless of the time of measurement, were more negative toward hen and used hen less compared to women, which aligns with previous research in Sweden (e.g. Gustafsson Sendén et al., 2015, 2021; Renström et al., 2022).”

May combine two claims.

Both positive attitudes toward hen and use of hen increased over time.

“Both positive attitudes and use of hen increased over time.”

• Also stated in: § Discussion · plain

  “However, despite this resistance, our results also show a gradual shift over time in the whole sample, such that attitudes toward hen have become more positive, and use has increased.”

May combine two claims.

In the collapsed dataset, 47.7% of participants reported the most negative attitudes toward hen (ratings 1 or 2), 25.2% held fairly neutral attitudes (rating 3), and 26.5% reported the most positive attitudes (ratings 4 or 5).

“In the collapsed dataset, 47.7% of the participants reported the most negative attitudes toward hen (ratings of 1 or 2 on the scale), 25.2% held fairly neutral attitudes (ratings of 3), and 26.5% reported the most positive attitudes (ratings of 4 or 5).”

May combine two claims.

Overall, the mean attitudes were relatively neutral, close to the midpoint of the scale (i.e. 3), while use was low in general.

“Overall, the mean attitudes were relatively neutral, close to the midpoint of the scale (i.e. 3), while use was low in general.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Gender predicted both attitudes toward hen and use of hen while adjusting for age, gender identification, and year.

“As can be seen in Table 1, gender predicted both attitudes and use while adjusting for other relevant variables (Models 1 and 3).”

May combine two claims.

Older participants were less positive toward hen and used hen less.

“Older participants and those with a stronger gender identification were less positive and used hen less.”

May combine two claims.

Participants with stronger gender identification were less positive toward hen and used hen less.

“Older participants and those with a stronger gender identification were less positive and used hen less.”

May combine two claims.

Participants who scored higher on sexism were more likely to be negative toward hen and less likely to use it.

“Participants, who scored higher on sexism (Ekehammar et al., 2000; Swim et al., 1995), were more likely to be negative toward hen and less likely to use it.”

May combine two claims.

Sexism was lower in 2018 and 2021 compared to 2015, with a general trend that sexism decreased over the years, especially from 2015 to 2021.

“Sexism was lower in 2018 and 2021 compared to 2015—that is, there was a general trend that sexism decreased over the years, especially from 2015 to 2021.”

May combine two claims.

When adding sexism to the models, the explained variance substantially increases, and the predictive power of gender decreases.

“As can be seen, when adding sexism, the explained variance substantially increases, and the predictive power of gender decreases.”

May combine two claims.

Across the survey years, hen has become more accepted and used.

“although hen has become more accepted and used”

May combine two claims.

Sexism predicts more negative attitudes toward gender-inclusive pronouns and less use of such pronouns.

“Men are also higher in sexism compared to women, and sexism predicts more negative attitudes and less use of gender-inclusive pronouns.”

May combine two claims.

The model including sexism is a better fit than the model without it for both attitudes and use (ΔAIC > 10).

“The AIC model selection indices for both attitudes and use suggest that the model including sexism is a better fit than the model without it (ΔAIC > 10).”

May combine two claims.

Men as a group, compared to women as a group, are over time more negative toward the Swedish gender-inclusive pronoun hen and use it less.

“This study shows that men as a group, compared to women as a group, are over time more negative toward the Swedish gender-inclusive pronoun hen and use it less.”

May combine two claims.

Sexism predicts more negative attitudes and less use of hen.

“which, as hypothesized, predicts more negative attitudes and less use of hen.”

May combine two claims.

Women with higher levels of sexism-though less common-were also more likely to report negative attitudes and less use of hen.

“While men generally report more sexist attitudes, women with higher levels of sexism—though less common—were also more likely to report negative attitudes and less use of hen.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Both de-gendering and multi-gendering strategies can contribute to inclusion and visibility in language, which can benefit women, sexual minorities, transgender people, nonbinary and gender-nonconforming individuals.

“Both strategies can contribute to inclusion and visibility in language, which can benefit women, sexual minorities, transgender people, nonbinary and gender-nonconforming individuals (Klysing et al., 2022; van Berlekom et al., 2024).”

• cites Klysing et al., 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites van Berlekom et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The use of gender-inclusive pronouns can serve two primary functions: reducing the emphasis on gender in language (a de-gendering strategy) or explicitly recognizing nonbinary individuals in language (a multi-gendering strategy).

“The use of these pronouns can serve two primary functions: reducing the emphasis on gender in language, for instance, when gender is irrelevant (a de-gendering strategy), or explicitly recognizing nonbinary individuals in language (a multi-gendering strategy) (Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021; Renström et al., 2022).”

• cites Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Renström et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Gender is not an inherent characteristic but a social construct reinforced through repeated performances of gendered appearances, behaviors, and roles.

“gender is not an inherent characteristic but rather a social construct reinforced through repeated performances of gendered appearances, behaviors, and roles”

• cites Butler, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Gender-inclusive pronoun practices most likely stand in contrast to sexist attitudes.

“As gender-inclusive pronouns in language are used to make gender less salient or to highlight other gender identities than women and men, such practices most likely stand in contrast to sexist attitudes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In many Western societies, there is a growing awareness of gender diversity.

“and there seems to be a growing awareness of gender diversity (Hekahanho, 2020).”

• cites Hekahanho, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The study used three large-scale representative surveys of Swedish native speakers collected in 2015, 2018, and 2021, with a total N of 4,987.

“The study is based on three large-scale representative surveys collected in 2015, 2018, and 2021 (total N = 4,987), analyzing Swedish native speakers’ attitudes toward hen and use of hen.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Two strategies have been suggested to challenge the binary conceptualization of gender: de-gendering and multi-gendering.

“Two strategies have been suggested to challenge the binary conceptualization of gender. De-gendering strategies aim to remove or minimize the salience of gender altogether, while multi-gendering strategies aim to draw attention to the fact that gender is not binary (Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021).”

• cites Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gender is sometimes referred to as gender/sex to emphasize the perception that sex and gender are inherently intertwined.

“As a result, gender is sometimes referred to as gender/sex to emphasize the perception that these two constructs are inherently intertwined (Butler, 1990; Hyde et al., 2019; Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021).”

• cites Butler, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hyde et al., 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Hen was implemented in the Swedish language in 2015.

“Hen was implemented in the Swedish language in 2015 (SAOL, 2015)”

• cites SAOL, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Butler's concept of gender trouble describes situations in which gendered performances are disrupted, thereby challenging the binary framework of gender.

“Butler's concept of gender trouble describes situations in which these performances are disrupted, thereby challenging the binary framework of gender (Butler, 1990; Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021).”

• cites Butler, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In many Western societies, the traditional binary view of gender is gradually shifting.

“However, in many Western societies, the traditional binary view of gender, based on the assumption of alignment between sex assigned at birth and gender identity, is gradually shifting”

• cites Hekahanho, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The binary conceptualization of gender functions prescriptively to specify what is desired of women and men and proscriptively by specifying what is not.

“This binary conceptualization of gender functions prescriptively to specify what is desired of women and men and proscriptively by specifying what is not (Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021; Morgenroth et al., 2021; Prentice & Carranza, 2002).”

• cites Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Morgenroth et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Prentice & Carranza, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Disruptions to gendered performances can arise when an individual's gender expression does not conform to societal expectations or when language such as gender-inclusive pronouns challenges the traditional gender binary.

“Such disruptions can arise when an individual's gender expression does not conform to societal expectations or when language itself, such as gender-inclusive pronouns, challenges the traditional gender binary.”

May combine two claims.

Individuals with stronger sexist attitudes are more negative toward and less likely to use gender-inclusive language.

“are more negative toward and less likely to use gender-inclusive language (Sczesny et al., 2015)”

• cites Sczesny et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Men report more negative attitudes toward gender-inclusive pronouns, are less likely to use them, and react more negatively when encountering such pronouns in a sentence.

“men report more negative attitudes, are less likely to use them, and react more negatively when encountering such pronouns in a sentence (Gustafsson Sendén et al., 2015, 2021; Renström et al., 2022)”

• cites Gustafsson Sendén et al., 2015, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Renström et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Resistance toward gender-inclusive language is associated with sexist attitudes, and sexist attitudes are associated with lower acceptance of gender-inclusive language.

“Resistance toward gender-inclusive language is associated with sexist attitudes (Norton & Herek, 2013; Sarrasin et al., 2012)”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · plain

  “sexist attitudes, which function to sustain hierarchical gender structures, are associated with lower acceptance of gender-inclusive language”

• cites Norton & Herek, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sarrasin et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Gender identification is related to attitudes toward hen because hen challenges the binary gender structure, and those highly invested in their binary gender identity may perceive this as threatening to the clear distinctions between women and men.

“Gender identification has been shown to be related to attitudes toward hen as hen challenges the binary gender structure, and those highly invested in their (binary) gender identity may thus perceive this as threatening to the clear distinctions between the groups women and men (Morgenroth et al., 2021).”

• cites Morgenroth et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Gender-inclusive pronouns challenge the binary conceptualization of gender.

“Gender-inclusive pronouns challenge the binary conceptualization of gender”

May combine two claims.

Older individuals and individuals who more strongly identify with their gender are more likely to hold negative attitudes toward gender-inclusive pronouns and use them less.

“older individuals and individuals who more strongly identify with their gender (i.e. those who see their gender identity as central to their self-concept) are more likely to hold negative attitudes toward gender-inclusive pronouns and use them less (Gustafsson Sendén et al., 2015, 2021; Lindqvist et al., 2016, Morgenroth et al., 2021; Renström & Klysing, 2024)”

• cites Gustafsson Sendén et al., 2015, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lindqvist et al., 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Morgenroth et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Swedish gender-inclusive pronoun hen was officially implemented 10 years ago in 2015.

“the Swedish gender-inclusive pronoun hen was officially implemented 10 years ago in 2015 (SAOL, 2015)”

• cites SAOL, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Data collection and research procedures were carried out in accordance with Swedish national ethical standards and the Swedish Research Council, and were approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority.

“Data collection and research procedures were carried out in accordance with Swedish national ethical standards and the Swedish Research Council, which adheres to the European Code of Conduct for research integrity (ALLEA, 2023; Swedish Research Council, 2017) and were approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority.”

• cites ALLEA, 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Swedish Research Council, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Participants provided informed consent before enrolling in the survey and were informed about ethical considerations, including voluntary participation, the right to withdraw, and data handling.

“Participants provided informed consent before enrolling in the survey and were informed about ethical considerations, including voluntary participation, the right to withdraw, and data handling.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

If someone believes sexism is not a real or pressing issue, they are unlikely to see a need for more inclusive language.

“If someone believes sexism is not a real or pressing issue, they are unlikely to see a need for more inclusive language.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Swedish authorities' writing guidelines recommend using gender-inclusive language in public texts, including the pronoun hen, when contextually appropriate.

“the Swedish authorities’ writing guidelines recommend using gender-inclusive language in public texts, including the pronoun hen, when contextually appropriate (Språkrådet, 2014)”

• cites Språkrådet, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The binary conceptualization of gender is tied to hierarchical gender structures.

“the binary conceptualization of gender is tied to hierarchical gender structures”

May combine two claims.

Increased prevalence of hen in media and official recommendations likely lead to increased familiarity with hen among the public, which in turn may contribute to more positive attitudes and more use among individuals who were not positive toward the pronoun or did not use it at the outset.

“This likely leads to increased familiarity with hen among the public, which in turn may contribute to more positive attitudes and more use among individuals who were not positive toward the pronoun or did not use it at the outset (Gustafsson Sendén et al., 2015, 2021).”

• cites Gustafsson Sendén et al., 2015, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

When individuals perceive a challenge to their group's position or status, they may reinforce existing beliefs and emphasize distinctions between groups, sometimes leading to hostility toward the outgroup.

“When individuals perceive a challenge to the own group's position or status, they may reinforce existing beliefs and emphasize distinctions between groups, sometimes leading to hostility toward those perceived as the outgroup (Renström et al., 2023a).”

• cites Renström et al., 2023aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The data are openly available on the Open Science Framework.

“The data are openly available on the Open Science Framework (link).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Legal gender was chosen over participants' preferred pronouns because the pronoun options varied across years, making direct comparisons between pronoun groups ambiguous.

“Legal gender was chosen over participants’ preferred pronouns because the pronoun options varied across years, making direct comparisons between pronoun groups ambiguous.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Disrupting normative gender performances exposes gender as a social construct, making the fluidity and contingency of gender more apparent.

“Butler's concept of gender trouble suggests that disrupting normative gender performances exposes gender as a social construct, making the fluidity and contingency of gender more apparent.”

• cites Butler, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Sexist attitudes and overall system-justifying beliefs could pose a barrier to the integration of gender-inclusive pronouns in languages, as well as other initiatives that challenge the binary construction of gender.

“Sexist attitudes and overall system-justifying beliefs could pose a barrier to the integration of gender-inclusive pronouns in languages, as well as other initiatives that challenge the binary construction of gender.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Attitudes measured at a single point in time may not be stable or reflective of long-term attitudes.

“In terms of attitudes, since they are measured only at a single point in time, it is possible that they may not be stable or reflective of long-term attitudes.”

May combine two claims.

Gender-inclusive pronouns challenge the binary conceptualization of gender and, in turn, the hierarchical gender structure in society.

“However, because gender-inclusive pronouns challenge the binary conceptualization of gender and, in turn, the hierarchical gender structure in society (Morgenroth et al., 2021; Renström & Klysing, 2024), those who benefit the most from these structures are expected to be more resistant.”

• cites Morgenroth et al., 2021Not matched

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• cites Renström & Klysing, 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

We cannot rule out reversed causation between sexism and attitudes toward hen and use of hen.

“we cannot rule out reversed causation between sexism and attitudes toward hen and use of hen.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Single-item measures of attitudes can be limited because measuring positive or negative attitudes can be interpreted in various ways and does not clarify the specific reasons behind participants' attitudes toward the pronoun.

“Regarding the use of single-item measures, while they are convenient, they can be limited in that measuring positive or negative attitudes toward something can be interpreted in various ways and does not clarify the specific reasons behind participants’ attitudes toward the pronoun.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The findings in the current study are based on large and representative samples and the measures are assessed over several years.

“While the findings in the current study are based on large and representative samples and the measures are assessed over several years”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Single-item measures can still be valuable, particularly when comparing data across years, as they simplify the measurement process and help maintain some consistency across time.

“Nevertheless, single-item measures can still be valuable, particularly when comparing data across years, as they simplify the measurement process and help maintain some consistency across time.”

May combine two claims.

The relationships between gender, sexism, attitudes toward hen, and use of hen were found while adjusting for age, gender identification, and year.

“These relationships were found while adjusting for age, gender identification, and year.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The language that is used can reflect both how the world is perceived and how the world is constructed.

“the language that is used can reflect both how the world is perceived and how the world is constructed (Fiedler, 2008; Lucy, 1992; Whorf, 1956).”

• cites Fiedler, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lucy, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Whorf, 1956Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Research has shown that in some countries with genderless language, individuals show more support for gender equality and opposition to domestic violence toward the wife compared to those in predominantly non-genderless language-speaking countries.

“research has shown that in some countries with genderless language, individuals show more support for gender equality and opposition to domestic violence toward the wife compared to those in predominantly non-genderless language-speaking countries (Tanabe et al., 2025).”

• cites Tanabe et al., 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Intergroup threat theory states that when a group perceives that another group is in a position to threaten the ingroup, such as by threatening their status or position, a common reaction is intergroup distancing.

“the intergroup threat theory states that when a group perceives that another group is in a position to threaten the ingroup, such as by threatening their status or position, a common reaction is intergroup distancing (Renström et al., 2024).”

• cites Renström et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Both de-gendering and multi-gendering strategies of gender-inclusive pronouns conflict with worldviews that deny gender-based discrimination and oppose gender equality.

“However, both strategies seem to conflict with worldviews that deny gender-based discrimination and oppose gender equality.”

May combine two claims.

The data is cross-sectional and collected from different participants over the years.

“Given that the data is cross-sectional and collected from different participants over the years”

May combine two claims.

Linguistic shifts as part of broader social change may activate gender identity threats, which lead to compensatory attitudes or behaviors aimed at preserving traditional gender roles and hierarchies.

“Our findings indicate that linguistic shifts as part of broader social change may activate gender identity threats, which lead to compensatory attitudes or behaviors aimed at preserving traditional gender roles and hierarchies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the current research, we did not distinguish between resistance toward gender-inclusive pronouns used as a de-gendering strategy versus used as a multi-gendering strategy.

“Importantly, in the current research, we did not distinguish between resistance toward gender-inclusive pronouns used as a de-gendering strategy versus used as a multi-gendering strategy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Self-reported use of pronouns may be limited because individuals may fail to recall or be unaware of how often they use a particular pronoun.

“With self-reported use, there is the factor that individuals may fail to recall or be unaware of how often they use a particular pronoun.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The cross-sectional data analyzed in this study cannot establish causality.

“While the cross-sectional data we analyzed here cannot establish causality”

May combine two claims.

Masculinity must be performed and is therefore vulnerable to perceived threats.

“which suggest that masculinity must be performed and is therefore vulnerable to perceived threats (Hunt et al., 2016; Mesler et al., 2022).”

• cites Hunt et al., 2016Not matched

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• cites Mesler et al., 2022Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Other initiatives to increase gender equality and inclusion may be currently facing a major obstacle in the backlash against gender equality and modern sexism.

“Extending this reasoning to apply to other types of actions to increase gender equality and inclusion, such initiatives may be currently facing a major obstacle in this backlash.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Modern sexism is a relatively broad indicator of endorsement of traditional gender arrangements and not specifically related to language.

“We used modern sexism, as this is a relatively broad indicator of endorsement of traditional gender arrangements and not specifically related to language.”

May combine two claims.

Integrating gender-inclusive pronouns in languages is possible despite strong initial resistance, but it is a slow process.

“This suggests that integrating gender-inclusive pronouns in languages is possible despite strong initial resistance, but it is a slow process nonetheless.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The pronoun hen was first discussed in 2011 and had been part of the Swedish language for 10 years at the time of the 2021 survey.

May combine two claims.

There is tension in the shift toward gender-inclusive pronouns as they challenge established gender categories, likely leading to resistance from those committed to maintaining binary and hierarchical gender structures.

“Our findings show that there is tension in this shift as gender-inclusive pronouns challenge established gender categories, likely leading to resistance from those committed to maintaining binary and hierarchical gender structures.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Gender-inclusive pronouns undermine the binary conceptualization of gender.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Previous research found that men report more negative attitudes and less use of hen compared to women.

“First, we test the part of the hypothesis found in previous research that men report more negative attitudes, and less use of hen compared to women (Gustafsson Sendén et al., 2015, 2021; Renström et al., 2022).”

• cites Gustafsson Sendén et al., 2015, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Renström et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Third-person pronouns are among the most frequently used words in many languages.

“As third-person pronouns are among the most frequently used words in many languages (e.g. Pennebaker, 2011)”

• cites Pennebaker, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Smaller effect sizes are often more accurately measured in research.

“it is worth noting that smaller effect sizes are often more accurately measured in research (Funder & Ozer, 2019).”

• cites Funder & Ozer, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The sample size in the current study was large.

“considering that the sample size in the current study was large”