The DOI matches its Crossref record, with a small difference in title or year; 100 of the 106 references it cites were found in a registry or an index, and 6 are not checked yet; none of the 175 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Miles to Go before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health
Open accessAbstract
Large, pervasive, and persistent racial inequalities exist in the onset, courses, and outcomes of illness. A comprehensive understanding of the patterning of racial disparities indicates that racism in both its institutional and individual forms remains an important determinant. There is an urgent need to build the science base that would identify how to trigger the conditions that would facilitate needed societal change and to identify the optimal interventions that would confront and dismantle the societal conditions that create and sustain health inequalities.
Checked 2026-10-09 · 6 references not checked yet
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review documents large, pervasive, and persistent racial inequities in U.S. health and argues that institutional and individual racism, alongside socioeconomic inequality, are key drivers. It calls for a science base to guide societal and health-care interventions to reduce these inequities.
Key findings
- In 2007, blacks had an overall death rate 30% higher than whites and higher death rates than whites for 10 of the 15 leading causes of death; the 2007 life expectancy gap was almost five years (73.6 vs. 78.4 years).
- Minorities experience earlier onset and faster progression of disease: incident heart failure before age 50 was 20 times more common in blacks than whites in CARDIA, with average onset at 39 years for African Americans; 28% of cardiovascular disease deaths among blacks occurred before age 65 versus 13% among whites.
- Race captures more than SES: high-income blacks and whites lived 7.1 and 6.8 years longer, respectively, than low-income counterparts, with black-white differences at every income level; infant mortality for college-educated African American women was more than 2.5 times that of similarly educated whites and Hispanics.
- Perceived discrimination is linked to poor health: audit studies found a white applicant with a criminal record was more likely to be offered a job than a black applicant with a clean record, and white-named resumes were 50% more likely to get callbacks; among 5,147 fifth graders, 7% of whites, 15% of Hispanics, and 20% of blacks reported racial discrimination, associated with increased risk of depression, ADHD, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder.
Methods
- Narrative review/overview of current knowledge on racial inequities in health, drawing on national mortality and life-expectancy data, epidemiological studies, audit experiments, and policy/intervention evidence.
- No new primary data collection or formal systematic review/meta-analysis is described; the paper synthesizes published evidence and outlines promising areas for future research and intervention.
Limitations
- Stated: mortality statistics are more accurate for blacks and whites than for other racial populations due to numerator and denominator problems; misclassification of Asians, Hispanics, and especially American Indians as white on death certificates yields reported rates lower than actual rates.
- Stated: age-adjusted death rates are not accurate measures of actual risk and can distort the magnitude of disparities; combining Pacific Islander data with Asian data obscures elevated risks, and there is important heterogeneity within OMB racial categories.
- Stated: current knowledge is even more limited regarding the most effective strategies to reduce health inequities. Evident from the text: as a narrative overview, it does not report a systematic search strategy, inclusion criteria, or quantitative synthesis, so conclusions rely on selected evidence.
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Verification
Claims the paper makes
170 Not checked yet · 30 Own interpretation · 12 No basis given · 2 Own result
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“African Americans had higher death rates than whites for 10 of the 15 leading causes of death.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“middle-aged U.S.-born Mexican Americans and Mexican immigrants with long-term residence in the U.S., had higher levels of allostatic load (a summary measure of biological dysregulation) than recent Mexican immigrants, despite being higher in SES, and even after adjustment for health practices and medical care”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaestner et al. 2009
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In the paper
“Morbidity data also reveal elevated rates of illness for American Indians compared to whites for multiple conditions”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Barnes, Adams, and Powell-Griner 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“American Indians served by the Indian Health Service (IHS, some 60% of that population) have a markedly worse health profile than that of American Indians nationally”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Indian Health Service 2009 [ISH]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“age specific black/white mortality ratios are larger than the overall age-adjusted ratio of 1.3 from birth through age seventy-four”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams et al. 2010
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The negative stigmatization of being black appears to adversely impact black Caribbean immigrants over time.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there is important heterogeneity in health status by ethnicity within each of the OMB racial categories”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hispanics and American Indians had higher death rates than whites for diabetes, liver cirrhosis and homicide.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the misclassification of Asians, Hispanics and especially American Indians as white on death certificates leads to reported mortality rates for these groups that are lower than the actual rates.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For more than 100 years, scientific research has documented that there are racial gaps in health”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites National Center for Health Statistics 2011 [NCHS]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 67
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
In the paper
“Among first generation immigrants, making race salient enhances academic performance while it reduces academic performance for the second generation”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Deaux et al. 2007
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“a study of Chicago adults found that foreign born Hispanics had level of illness and stress similar to whites while U.S.-born Hispanics were similar to African Americans on these indicators”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sternthal, Slopen, and Williams 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“American Indians also had elevated mortality rates for accidents and hypertension.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Immigrants of all racial groups tend to have better health than their native-born peers but their health declines with increasing length of stay and generational status”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Singh and Miller 2004
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“although age-adjusted death rates are useful metrics for comparison, they are not accurate measures of actual risk”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites NCHS 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“compared to a lifetime rate of psychiatric disorders that is 31% for African Americans and 37% for whites (Miranda et al. 2008), the rate is 19% for black Caribbean immigrants (Williams et al. 2007b). This rate increases to 35% in the second generation and 55% in the third.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams et al. 2007b
- Not checked yetcites Miranda et al. 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“in contrast to an overall age-adjusted rate that is lower than whites, American Indians have higher age-specific death rates than whites from birth through age fifty-four”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams et al. 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In 2007, blacks had an overall death rate that was 30% higher than that of whites while the rates for all other groups were lower than that of whites (Table 1).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Table 1
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Large, pervasive and persistent racial inequalities exist in the onset, course and outcomes of illness.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the extent of health inequalities over time varies by the use of absolute versus relative measures of inequality and that an exclusive use of relative measures can obscure progress”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial Disparities in Health Persist Over Time
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Harper et al. 2010
- Not checked yetcites Williams 2005
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“African Americans have lower lifetime and current rates of depression than whites”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial differences across the continuum of disease
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams et al. 2007a
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“depressed blacks are more likely than their white peers to have higher levels of impairment, more severe symptoms, to be chronically depressed and to not receive any treatment”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial differences across the continuum of disease
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams et al. 2007a
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“in contrast to a protective effect for whites, there was no beneficial effect of moderate alcohol consumption on all-cause mortality for blacks”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial Disparities Exist in the Effects of some Risk Factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sempos et al. 2003
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Although levels of cigarette smoking are similar for blacks compared to whites a given level of tobacco use has a more adverse impact on blacks compared to whites.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial Disparities Exist in the Effects of some Risk Factors
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minorities also get sick at younger ages and die sooner than whites.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Earlier Onset of Disease
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Women generally have higher rates of major depression than men but Black Caribbean men have a current rate of depression that is higher than Caribbean women”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams et al. 2007a
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“they are more likely than their white peers to have tumors that grow quickly, recur more often, are resistant to treatment, and kill more frequently”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial differences across the continuum of disease
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chlebowski et al. 2005
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They have a higher prevalence of current and lifetime mental disorders than Caribbean women and current and lifetime rates of mood disorders than African American men”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams et al. 2007b
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Geronimus 1992) showed that national infant death rates were lower for white and Mexican American women who delayed first births to their twenties compared to those who gave birth in their teens. The opposite pattern was evident for black and Puerto Rican women”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Earlier Onset of Disease
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Geronimus 1992
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“White women have a higher incidence of breast cancer than blacks, but the opposite pattern exists under the age of 40, where African American women have a higher incidence than their white peers”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Earlier Onset of Disease
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Anderson et al. 2008
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Geronimus 1992) argued that this pattern was due to ‘weathering’ -- early physiological deterioration due to the cumulative impact of multiple social disadvantages.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Earlier Onset of Disease
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Geronimus 1992
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“a 20 year follow-up of adults in the CARDIA study found that incident heart failure before the age of fifty was 20 times more common in blacks than whites, with the average age of onset being 39 years old for African Americans”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Earlier Onset of Disease
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bibbins-Domingo et al. 2009
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They found that blacks were more likely than whites to score high on allostatic load (high on 4 or more indicators) at all ages and the size of the black-white gap increased with age.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Earlier Onset of Disease
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Geronimus et al. 2006
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although black women are less likely to get breast cancer in any given year, they are more likely to die from it.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial differences across the continuum of disease
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“although the racial gap has narrowed, there is still an almost five-year gap in life expectancy in 2007 (73.6 vs. 78.4 years).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial Disparities in Health Persist Over Time
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites NCHS 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Life expectancy has been improving for both groups over time but it was not until 1990 that blacks achieved the life expectancy that whites had in 1950.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial Disparities in Health Persist Over Time
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites NCHS 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For both racial groups, as income levels rise, health improves in a stepwise manner, but there are black-white differences in life expectancy at every level of income.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Race Captures More Than Socioeconomic Inequality
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The pattern of racial inequities in health in the U.S. mirror those in other countries and suggest the potential of common societal causes across national and cultural contexts.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Large Racial Gaps in Health Persist > Racial Disparities in Health Persist Over Time
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“He argued that British society was committing “social murder” by exposing workers to living and working conditions that made it difficult to be healthy and live to an advanced age.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Engels ([1845] 1984)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“health is affected not only by one’s current SES but by exposure to social and economic adversity over the life course.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Understanding the Added Burden of Race
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Geronimus and colleagues (2006) analysis of allostatic load scores parallel the life expectancy data and further illustrate how race and SES reflect two related but not interchangeable systems of inequality.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Race Captures More Than Socioeconomic Inequality
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Geronimus et al. 2006
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For both blacks and whites, allostatic load scores were higher for the poor than non-poor, but blacks had higher scores than whites at comparable income levels”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Race Captures More Than Socioeconomic Inequality
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Geronimus et al. 2006
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Friedrich Engels ([1845] 1984) had noted that the upper classes in Liverpool, England had an average life expectancy of 35 years compared to 15 years for day laborers.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Engels ([1845] 1984)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, race and SES combine in complex ways to affect health.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“historical and contemporary racial discrimination created and perpetuates both racial inequities in SES and racial inequality in health status.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are large racial differences in SES and they account for a substantial part of observed racial differences in health.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Location in social structure reflects differential power and differential exposure to psychological, social, physical and chemical exposures in occupational, residential and other societal contexts.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A recent national study of Jewish Americans, a white ethnic group with a history of structural disadvantage and stigmatization, found that Jews had higher levels of income and education than other whites, but they reported poorer health status than other whites once the association is adjusted for SES”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Perceived Discrimination and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pearson and Geronimus 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Discrimination has also been associated with delays in seeking treatment, lower adherence to medical regimes, and lower rates of follow-up.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Perceived Discrimination and Health
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Public sector employment has been a key to black upward mobility and the development of the black middle class”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilson 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Extant studies include all major racial/ethnic groups in the U.S. and non-dominant racial groups in New Zealand, South Africa and Australia, and immigrants in Canada, Hong Kong and many countries in Europe.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Perceived Discrimination and Health
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Environmental exposures are one potential contributor to epigenetic changes, reflecting the reality that biology is not static but adapts to environmental conditions.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Understanding the Added Burden of Race
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the majority of poor persons in the U.S. are white, poor white families are not concentrated in contexts of economic and social disadvantage and with the absence of an infrastructure that promotes opportunity in the ways that poor blacks and Latinos are.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Understanding the Added Burden of Race
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The neighborhoods where minority children live have lower income, education and home ownership rates and higher rates of poverty and unemployment compared to those where white children reside.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Understanding the Added Burden of Race
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“there are higher levels of college completion for women than men in all racial groups in the U.S., but the gap is largest among blacks.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilson 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Limited evidence indicates that whites understand questions about discrimination in ways similar to blacks and that their emotional reactions and reported stress responses are similar to those of African Americans”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Perceived Discrimination and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams et al. 2012
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“although their levels of discrimination are lower than those of blacks, discrimination also adversely affects the health of whites”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Perceived Discrimination and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams and Mohammed 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus the median wealth of whites is 20 times that of blacks and 18 times that of Hispanics.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pew Research Center 2011b
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Residential segregation by race, a mechanism of institutional discrimination, can restrict socioeconomic attainment and lead to group differences in SES and health.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Understanding the Added Burden of Race
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams and Collins 2001
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It also creates pathogenic neighborhood conditions with minorities living in markedly more health-damaging residential environments than whites and facing higher levels of acute and chronic stressors.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Understanding the Added Burden of Race
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams and Collins 2001
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minority group members are aware of at least some experiences of discrimination and such incidents can be a source of stress.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Making Sense of Racial Inequalities in Health > Perceived Discrimination and Health
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Wilson (2011) also indicates that these challenges will be especially acute for black males.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilson 2011
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“in 2011, the Republican edge (Republicans or Independents leaning Republican) over democrats among whites was 13 points (52% to 39%), compared to a two point edge (46% to 44%) in 2008.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pew Research Center 2011a
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In turn, the gains in life expectancy for working-age black women during 1965-74 exceeded those of other race and sex groups and were three times as large as those in the prior decade (Kaplan et al. 2008).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan et al. 2008
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the evidence reviewed here document the persistence of inequality and discrimination and suggest that anti-discrimination programs may be crucial for ensuring racial equality.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Civil Rights policies narrowed the black-white economic gap with the gains being greater for women than for men (Kaplan, Ranjit, and Burgard 2008).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan, Ranjit, and Burgard 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The bottom-line is that 40,000 people die in the U.S. annually because of a lack of health insurance and we need to maximize the potential of health care to reduce disparities (Wilper et al. 2009).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > Maximizing Opportunities to Address Disparities in Health Care Settings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilper et al. 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“These budget cuts, many of them outside the health sector, weaken the social safety net for vulnerable populations and will likely lead to increased rates of illness, greater numbers of premature deaths and increased healthcare costs”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Woolf 2011
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Since President Obama has been elected, there has been marked growth in Republican party membership among White voters that has been particularly pronounced among the young (18-29) and the low income (less than $30k)”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pew Research Center 2011a
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, several lines of evidence highlight the potential of at least some types of medical care to improve health and reduce social inequalities in health.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > Maximizing Opportunities to Address Disparities in Health Care Settings
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A recent study that randomized uninsured residents to apply for Medicaid services found that, one year later, the treatment group had higher use of health care services (including primary and preventive care), lower out-of-pocket medical expenses, lower medical debt and financial stress, and better self-reported physical and mental health than the control group (Finkelstein et al. 2011).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > Maximizing Opportunities to Address Disparities in Health Care Settings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Finkelstein et al. 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This research has found that several framing strategies that are widely used such as framing diversity as a strength, arguing that disparities for minorities were early warning indicators (canaries in a coal mine), or claiming that disparities reflect white privilege or are structurally driven were all ineffective (Davey 2009).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > Enhancing Emotional Affect
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davey 2009
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Both whites who voted for President Obama and those who did not indicate that there is less need to address racial inequality in the U.S. and they would be less supportive of policies to address inequities”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams et al. 2010
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although increased access to health care led to declines in child and maternal mortality and increases in life expectancy at birth, the low birthweight rate has not declined (Jafari et al. 2010).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > Maximizing Opportunities to Address Disparities in Health Care Settings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jafari et al. 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“First, primary care, with its emphasis on preventive care and the early management of disease is associated with lower total costs of health services, better health at the individual and population level and smaller social disparities in health (Starfield, Shi, and Macinko 2005).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > Maximizing Opportunities to Address Disparities in Health Care Settings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Starfield, Shi, and Macinko 2005
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A similar effect not evident after his election or inauguration and no effect was found among whites.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Malat, Timberlake, and Williams 2011
plainn = 46,000- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, communities vary in their levels of social cohesion and other protective resources such that community capacity can be an important resource at the local level.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > Building on Resilience and Protective factors
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, access to employment, opportunities for economic mobility and other social and economic resources can eliminate disparities in marriage and promote health.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 1994, the year that Nelson Mandela was elected, black levels of happiness and life satisfaction were at the highest level observed between 1983 and 1995, with the racial gap in psychological well-being eliminated for the first time in history (Moller 1998).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Moller 1998
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Racial disparities in health are a stark symbol of the historic and ongoing racial inequalities in society.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Conclusions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“That year also marked the lowest proportion of blacks reporting that whites wanted to keep blacks down and the lowest reports of racial discrimination.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jackson et al. 1996
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Research reveals that active duty military service promotes marriage over cohabitation, increases the likelihood of first marriage, and leads to greater stability of marriage and that these effects are greater for blacks than for whites (Teachman 2007; Teachman 2009; Teachman and Tedrow 2008).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Teachman 2007
- Not checked yetcites Teachman 2009
- Not checked yetcites Teachman and Tedrow 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Other research reveals that when President Barak Obama’s stereotype-defying success received considerable media attention (just after his nomination at the Democratic Convention and his election) there was improvement in black academic performance and a marked reduction in the well-documented negative effects of racial stereotypes on black academic performance (Marx, Ko, and Friedman 2009).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Marx, Ko, and Friedman 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both exposure to protective resources and the particular patterns of response that are mobilized to deal with potential threats can affect the levels of risk factors and also minimize the negative effects of particular risks.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > Building on Resilience and Protective factors
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, among both males and females, American Indians and whites have suicide rates that are comparable to each other and two to three times higher than those of blacks, Asians and Hispanics (Centers for Disease Control 2011).”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > Building on Resilience and Protective factors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Centers for Disease Control 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A recent study using cross-sectional data for 50 states for a 10-year period documented that states with more generous spending on education, more progressive taxation systems and more humane (lenient) TANF and Medicaid program rules had better overall population health (Kim and Jennings 2009) with the effects being stronger for overall mortality than for infant mortality.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kim and Jennings 2009
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, the life expectancy for blacks declined from the 1984 level for 5 years in a row while the life expectancy of whites increased slightly during this period.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Miles to Go: Enhancing the Science of Intervention > More Systematic and Rigorous Evaluation of Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams and Collins 1995
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They attest to the enduring effects of the institutionalization of inequality for stigmatized social groups.”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Racial inequalities in health are unjust and warrant societal intervention.
“there is an urgent need to develop a science base to guide societal interventions”
The paper relies on this without support.
Societal interventions can effectively reduce racial health inequities.
“identify the optimal interventions that would confront and dismantle the societal conditions that create and sustain health inequalities”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“The historically stigmatized racial groups, blacks (or African Americans), Native Americans (or American Indians and Alaska Natives) and Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, have worse health than that of whites [1]”
From Reducing Racial Inequities in Health: Using What We Already Know to Take Action (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > References
“21. Colen Cynthia G. Addressing Racial Disparities in Health Using Life Course Perspectives Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 2011 8 79 94 PMC5993442 29887911”
§ Miles to Go Before We Sleep: Racial Inequities in Health > References
“75. Sternthal Michelle J. Slopen Natalie Williams David R. Racial Disparities in Health: How Much Does Stress Really Matter? Du Bois Review 2011 8 95 113 PMC5993442 29887911”
Citations
Cites
Contribution of Primary Care to Health Systems and Health
STARFIELD, B., SHI, L., & MACINKO, J. (2005) · The Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2005.00409.x · Cited by 5,507
Journal of the National Medical Association
(2010) · Journal of the National Medical Association · doi:10.1016/s0027-9684(15)30622-2 · Cited by 5,338
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/0002828042002561 · Cited by 4,504
Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review.
Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0016059 · Cited by 4,427
The New Zealand Medical Journal 1887-1987.
Rg, R. (1987) · PubMed · Cited by 3,673
Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research
Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0 · Cited by 3,371
Self-citationRacial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of Racial Disparities in Health
Williams, D. R., & Collins, C. (2001) · Public Health Reports · doi:10.1093/phr/116.5.404 · Cited by 3,153
Self-citationMorbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
(2010) · Wilderness and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.wem.2010.09.015 · Cited by 2,976
National Vital Statistics Reports
Salkind, N. J. (2005) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412952484.n432 · Cited by 2,941
Pager, D. (2003) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/374403 · Cited by 2,840
Research works printed but not linked: 10
- Almond Douglas, Chay Kenneth Y. 2006. “The Long-Run and Intergenerational Impact of Poor Infant Health: Evidence from Cohorts Born during the Civil Rights Era.” Working Paper: National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
- American Sociological Association, 2003, The Importance of Collecting Data and Doing Scientific Research on Race
- Bramley Dale, 2004, New Zealand Medical Journal, 117, U1215
- Geronimus Arline T., 1992, Ethnicity and Disease, 2, 207
- Jackson James S., 1996, Ethnicity and Disease, 6, 132
- Malat Jennifer, 2011, Ethnicity and Disease, 21, 349
- Office of Management and Budget, 1997, Federal Register, 62, 58781
- Stinson Frederick S., 1996, U.S. Alcohol Epidemiologic Data Reference Manual
- Tucker Clyde, 1996, Bureau of Labor Statistical Notes, 40, 1
- Xu Jiaquan, 2010, National Vital Statistics Reports, 58, 1
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–502 of 502
They Not Like Us: A Story about Racioethnicity and Psychological Well-Being
Jackson, P. B. (2026) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465261467884
Metadata
- Authors
- Williams, D. R.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Williams, David R.
- ORCID
- Williams, David R.
- Venue
- Journal of Health and Social Behavior
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2012-08-31
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 279-295
- ISSN
- 0022-1465 (ISSN-L)
- 2150-6000
- PMC
- PMC3712789
- OpenAlex
- W2145131361
- Cited by
- 507
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 11.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Health and Social Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute (P50CA148596)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
- Keywords
- racial disparities in health, health disparities, racism, institutional racism, individual racism, social determinants of health, health interventions, social change
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Awareness, Humans, Mortality, Politics, Risk Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Sociology, Medical, Time Factors, Racial Groups, Health Status Disparities, Healthcare Disparities, Policy, Racism
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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