Cited by 467Substance Abuse Treatment and OutcomesAlcohol Consumption and Health EffectsSurvey Methodology and Nonresponse

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Measuring Alcohol Consumption

Gmel, Gerhard, Rehm, Jürgen·2004·Contemporary Drug Problems

DOI 10.1177/009145090403100304

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Abstract

This article is an overview of different approaches to measuring alcohol consumption: self-reports and objective measures such as blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and aggregate level measures. These approaches are evaluated as regards their ability to capture quantity, frequency, volume and variability of drinking. This review focuses on self-report measures and on the current knowledge of undercoverage error when compared with sales data. In the comparative evaluation of measures, two analytical aims are examined: a) description and testing of differences across groups for which ordinal information is sufficient and b) establishment of cutoff points and risk relationships for which unbiased interval scale level is required. First, minimal differences were found between self-report measures when the recall period was sufficiently long enough. Second, prospective diaries appear to be stronger measures than retrospective recalls. However, prospective diaries commonly cover only short reporting periods and should be combined with simple retrospective measures to capture rare and infrequent drinking episodes. In regard to undercoverage, the discrepancy cannot be fully explained by non-response or concealment of consumption by drinkers. It is argued that undercoverage of sales data may be more related to sample frame defects–-e.g., the non-inclusion of particular subpopulations such as the homeless or institutionalized.

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Trajectories in physical functioning at older age in relation to childhood and adulthood SES and social mobility: a population-based cohort study
Pająk, A., Polak, M., Kozela, M., Doryńska, A., & Bobák, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1228920 · Cited by 5
“However, it should be noted that this method is reliable in ranking participants based on their alcohol consumption (61).”
Method
Patterns of excess alcohol consumption among school children in two English comprehensive schools
Armitage, C. J. (2013) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.03.002 · Cited by 5
Differences in Predictors of Alcohol-Related Aggression and Non-Alcohol-Related Violent Perpetration: An Exploratory Analysis in a Sample of Young Adult Drinkers
Wells, S. L. (2006) · Contemporary Drug Problems · doi:10.1177/009145090603300402 · Cited by 5
“Since evidence from prior research suggests that error in self-reports of alcohol consumption increases with greater lengths of recall time (Gmel & Rehm 2004), the earliest report of age of drinking onset was selected for each respondent.”
Result
Burden of health behaviours and socioeconomic position on health care expenditure in Ontario
Manuel, D. G., Bennett, C. L., Perez, R., Wilton, A. S., Dass, A. R., Laporte, A., & Henry, D. A. (2019) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.18205.1 · Cited by 5
The future of alcohol surveys: Between the devil and the deep blue sea
Mäkelä, P. (2020) · Drug and Alcohol Review · doi:10.1111/dar.13162 · Cited by 5
Effectiveness of an Alcohol Relapse Prevention Program Based on the Satir Model in Alcohol-dependent Women
Srikosai, S., Thapinta, D., Kittirattanapaiboon, P., & Piyavhatkul, N. (2014) · Chiang Mai University Journal of Natural Sciences · doi:10.12982/cmujns.2014.0033 · Cited by 5
Rehm et al. Respond to "Never, or Hardly Ever?"
Rehm, J. T., Irving, H. M., Ye, Y., Kerr, W. C., Bond, J. C., & Greenfield, T. K. (2008) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwn195 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
The Australian ready-to-drink beverages tax missed its target age group
Alexeev, S., & Weatherburn, D. (2021) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103399 · Cited by 4
The effects of exceeding low-risk drinking thresholds on self-rated health and all-cause mortality in older adults: the Tromsø study 1994–2020
Stelander, L. T., Lorem, G. F., Høye, A., Bramness, J. G., Wynn, R., & Grønli, O. (2023) · Archives of Public Health · doi:10.1186/s13690-023-01035-0 · Cited by 4
Comparisons between context-specific and beverage-specific quantity frequency instruments to assess alcohol consumption indices: Individual and sample level analysis
Vichitkunakorn, P., Balthip, K., Geater, A. F., & Assanangkornchai, S. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202756 · Cited by 4
Shooting shots: Estimating alcoholic drink sizes in real life using event-level reports and annotations of close-up pictures.
Labhart, F., Phan, T.-T., Gatica-Perez, D., & Kuntsche, E. (2020) · Drug and Alcohol Review · doi:10.1111/dar.13212 · Cited by 4
“In alcohol research and policy, the amounts of alcohol consumed are principally measured in the number of ‘standard drinks’ that people consume within a given time frame [1,2].”
Background
Comparing self-affirmation manipulations to reduce alcohol consumption in university students
Vogt, K. S., Stephenson, J. R., & Norman, P. E. (2021) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2021.1968409 · Cited by 4
“27,56,57 Participants were presented with a table containing the weekday names in rows on the left, and space on the right to list what and how much alcohol they consumed on each day in a typical week, e.g. ‘4 pints of beer, 1 glass of wine’.”
BackgroundMethod
Improved estimates for individual and population-level alcohol use in the United States, 1984-2020
Buckley, C. M., Brennan, A., Kerr, W. C., Probst, C., Puka, K., Purshouse, R. C., & Rehm, J. T. (2022) · The International Journal of Alcohol and Drug Research · doi:10.7895/ijadr.383 · Cited by 4
Self-citation
Do non-cognitive skills matter for alcohol consumption? Evidence from Russia
Rozhkova, K. V., Roshchin, S., & Roshchina, Y. M. (2022) · Journal of Comparative Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jce.2022.11.005 · Cited by 4
Shifts in the Australian public's opinions towards alcohol policies: 2004–2019
Torney, A., Room, R., Jiang, H., Livingston, M., & Callinan, S. (2023) · Drug and Alcohol Review · doi:10.1111/dar.13727 · Cited by 4
Fieldworker effects on substance use reporting in a rural South African setting
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The impact of promoting revised UK low-risk drinking guidelines on alcohol consumption: interrupted time series analysis
Holmes, J., Beard, E., Brown, J., Brennan, A., Kersbergen, I., Meier, P. S., Michie, S., Stevely, A. K., & Buykx, P. (2020) · Public Health Research · doi:10.3310/phr08140 · Cited by 4
Small, slim, sleek, and familiar: user experiences with an ION wearable research alpha prototype transdermal alcohol monitor
Wright, C. C. J., Miller, M., van Egmond, K., Caluzzi, G., Anderson‐Luxford, D., Pennay, A. E., & Kuntsche, E. N. (2021) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.1080/16066359.2021.1982911 · Cited by 4
“These approaches, however, have several limitations, particularly underreporting due to recall bias and social desirability bias (Althubaiti 2016; Gmel and Rehm 2004).”
Background
Relapse prevention for alcohol use disorders: combined acamprosate and cue exposure therapy as aftercare
Stryhn, L., Larsen, M. B., Mejldal, A., Sibbersen, C., Nielsen, D. G., Nielsen, B., Nielsen, A. S., Stenager, E. N., & Mellentin, A. I. (2021) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039488.2021.1985169 · Cited by 5
Associations Between Antisocial Personality Disorder and Sex on Discounting Rates
Andrade, L. F., Riven, L., & Petry, N. M. (2014) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-014-0085-0 · Cited by 4
Trinkverhalten von Personen verschiedener Herkunftsregionen in Deutschland: Ein Vergleich mit Personen ohne Migrationshintergrund
Strupf, M., de Matos, E. G., Soellner, R., Kraus, L., & Piontek, D. (2016) · Suchttherapie · doi:10.1055/s-0042-111197 · Cited by 4
South African household expenditure patterns: alcohol products in 1995 and 2000
Ground, M., Koch, S. F., & van Wyk, D. (2008) · Acta Academica Critical views on society culture and politics · doi:10.38140/aa.v40i1.1165 · Cited by 4
Alcohol‐attributable deaths in Thai people from 2015 to 2021 using the comparative risk assessment approach
Nontarak, J., Rehm, J. T., Rovira, P., & Assanangkornchai, S. (2024) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.15489 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
Determinants of human hair mercury, blood mercury, blood selenium, and plasma omega-3 fatty acid levels within northern Canada
Packull-McCormick, S. R., Ratelle, M., Drysdale, M., Borghese, M. M., Bouchard, M., Stark, K. D., Gamberg, M., Swanson, H. K., Skinner, K. A., & Laird, B. D. (2025) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2025.114703 · Cited by 3
Public health impacts of increasing the minimum unit price for alcohol in Scotland: A model-based appraisal
Holmes, J., Morris, D., Gillespie, D., Brennan, A., Leeming, G., Chen, R. K. L., Wilson, L., & Angus, C. (2026) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004792 · Cited by 3
“Respondents to SHeS report their typical weekly alcohol consumption by beverage type via quantity-frequency questions [30].”
The impact of foster care and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) on women's drug treatment outcomes
Lewandowski, C. A., & Hill, T. J. (2008) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.11.017 · Cited by 3
The perception of young adult alcohol consumers regarding alcohol consumption and the risky behaviors of drinking alcohol in Tehran, Iran
Namaghi, R. N., & Perry, D. G. (2019) · Journal of Substance Use · doi:10.1080/14659891.2019.1692922 · Cited by 3
“Moreover, self-reporting of alcohol usage is a universal challenge (Gmel & Rehm, 2004).”
Background
Generally Altered, Inflated, Truncated and Deflated Regression
Yee, T. W., & Ma, C. (2024) · Statistical Science · doi:10.1214/24-sts925 · Cited by 3
Targeting multiple health risk behaviours among vocational education students using electronic feedback and online and telephone support: protocol for a cluster randomised trial
Tzelepis, F., Paul, C. L., Wiggers, J. H., Kypri, K., Bonevski, B., McElduff, P., Hill, M. A., Morgan, P. J., Lynagh, M., Collins, C. E., et al. (2015) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-015-1898-8 · Cited by 3
Estimating levels and trends in alcohol use – investigating the validity of estimates based on Norwegian population surveys
Østhus, S., & Amundsen, E. J. (2011) · Norsk Epidemiologi · doi:10.5324/nje.v21i1.1422 · Cited by 3
“It is recognized that in the process of measuring substance use with surveys, some types of errors are more important than others (Del Boca & Darkes 2003; Gmel & Rehm 2004).”
Background
Estimates of prenatal abstinence from alcohol: A matter of perspective
Chang, G., McNamara, T. K., Wilkins-Haug, L. E., & Orav, E. J. (2006) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.11.022 · Cited by 3
Gender differences in the prospective association between maternal alcohol consumption trajectories and young adult offspring’s problem gambling at 30 years
Tran, N., Clavarino, A. M., Williams, G. M., & Najman, J. M. (2016) · Asian Journal of Gambling Issues and Public Health · doi:10.1186/s40405-016-0010-3 · Cited by 3

Authors: Gmel, G., & Rehm, J.
Affiliations: Addiction Switzerland (CH)
University of Toronto (CA)
ORCID: Gmel, Gerhard
Rehm, Jürgen
Venue: Contemporary Drug Problems
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2004-09
Volume: 31
Issue: 3
Pages: 467-540
ISSN: 0091-4509 (ISSN-L)
2163-1808
DOI: 10.1177/009145090403100304
OpenAlex: W268934328
Cited by: 466
References: 135
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 18
FWCI: 17.78
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Contemporary Drug Problems (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Alcohol Consumption and Health Effects
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
Keywords: alcohol consumption measurement, self-report measures, blood alcohol concentration, sales data, retrospective recall, drinking frequency, drinking quantity

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