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Loneliness from young adulthood to old age: Explaining age differences in loneliness

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Hawkley, Louise C., Buecker, Susanne, Kaiser, Till, Luhmann, Maike·2022·International Journal of Behavioral Development

DOI 10.1177/0165025420971048PMC PMC8734589

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Abstract

Prior research in non-U.S. samples has found a complex nonlinear relationship between loneliness and age. This research has shown that established predictors of loneliness - poor health, being unmarried, living alone, and having infrequent social interactions - help to explain age differences in loneliness. However, while some variables were found to be universal predictors of loneliness at all ages, others were relevant in specific age groups only. In this study, we describe age differences in frequency of loneliness from age 18 to 89+ years in the U.S., and examine age differences in predictors of loneliness from age-specificity and age-normative perspectives. We used cross-sectional nationally representative data from the General Social Survey (N = 2,477) and found a nonlinear relationship between age and loneliness that closely resembles prior research. However, we found no evidence for age-specific predictors of loneliness. Household income, household size, marital status, health, and frequency of socializing were "universal" predictors of loneliness; their associations with loneliness did not differ in strength with age. Our hypothesis that individuals who deviated from age-specific norms would experience more intense loneliness was not supported. Implications for research and loneliness interventions are discussed.

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“Moreover, while all age groups experience loneliness, a generally higher prevalence is observed among older adults in most countries (Barreto et al., 2021; Dykstra, 2009; Hawkley et al., 2022; Surkalim et al., 2022).”
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“Some contributions suggest a U-shape relationship, with greater loneliness among the youngest and oldest (Beutel et al., 2017; Luhmann and Hawkley, 2016; Hawkley, 2022), but others instead that loneliness rises with age (Yang and Victor, 2011).”
Background
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“Looking at the entirety of the life course using pooled data from the General Social Survey, Hawkley et al. (2020) found that the age distribution of loneliness in the United States followed a non-linear pattern, with higher levels of loneliness in the oldest old (>75 years) and young adults (<30 years) with an additi…”
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“Loneliness may exist throughout an individual ’ s life, but it is more common in the adolescent population (45, 46).”
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“…across studies, a recent cross-sectional study based on a U.S. citizens’ sample noted a significant shift: In 2014, older adults were identified as the loneliest age group, whereas data from 2018 indicated that younger individuals had become the most affected by loneliness (Hawkley et al., 2022).”
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Authors: Hawkley, L. C., Buecker, S., Kaiser, T., & Luhmann, M.
Affiliations: University of Chicago (US)
Ruhr University Bochum (DE)
Corresponding author: Hawkley, Louise C.
ORCID: Hawkley, Louise C.
Buecker, Susanne
Kaiser, Till
Luhmann, Maike
Venue: International Journal of Behavioral Development
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2020-11-15
Volume: 46
Issue: 1
Pages: 39-49
ISSN: 0165-0254 (ISSN-L)
1464-0651
DOI: 10.1177/0165025420971048
PMC: PMC8734589
OpenAlex: W3106297590
Cited by: 281
References: 47
Citations by year: 2026: 55 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 1
FWCI: 12.58
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: International Journal of Behavioral Development (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Grant LU 2053/2-1)
Topics: Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Keywords: loneliness, age differences, life course, predictors of loneliness, marital status, living alone, social interaction, household income, household size, older adults, young adults

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Loneliness from young adulthood to old age: Explaining age differences in loneliness

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