Mothers' Reentry into Family Life Following Incarceration

“For example, many mothers are incarcerated far from home and have limited contact with their children during their confinement (Bloom & Steinhart, 1993; Costa, 2003; Hagan & Dinovitzer, 1999 ).”

“…few studies have investigated the relationship between this type of family support and recidivism among women offenders, there are indications that this is a factor important to women’s desistance (Arditti & Few, 2006; Benda, 2005; Dowden & Andrews, 1999; Flavin, 2004, Van Voorhis et al., 2008).”

“Children visiting their parent at a jail or prison may on occasion present with behavioral and emotional difficulties (Arditti & Few, 2006) that can exacerbate an already tenuous visiting environment and impact the quality of parent–child interaction during the visit.”

“Since incarcerated mothers are more likely to have experienced an accumulation of these difficulties (Arditti and Few, 2006; Glaze and Maruschak, 2008), a larger proportion of their corresponding caregivers (e.g., grandparents and fathers) might have assumed a large share of parenting roles in…”

“Even after release, incarceration might cause reduced educational opportunities and unemployment for ex-prisoners, which also may contribute to family economic strain (Arditti and Few, 2006; Pager, 2003).”

“These findings replicate and extend previous research which has also indicated that the experience of parental incarceration may be intensified for children dealing with mothers’ incarceration, relative to fathers’ incarceration (see Arditti and Few 2006; Dallaire 2007a).”

“The present study emerged from our previous work examining the experiences of 28 reentry mothers (Arditti & Few, 2006).”

“Imprisonment undermines the quality of parenting and undermines social support related to families (Arditti & Few, 2006).”

“In addition, ex-inmate peers are valuable resources for “knowing the ropes” and figuring out how to overcome potential obstacles after release, and they also can provide material assistance, including housing, and emotional support during treatment (Arditti & Few, 2006 ; Leverentz, 2006 ; O'Brien, 2001 ).”

“According to Arditti and Few (2006), female ex-offenders need assistance in addressing “three threats” to full community reintegration: substance abuse, trauma, and mental disorders.”

“…more so than any other factor, family support has been highlighted as an extraordinarily vital component for reentry success (see, generally, Arditti and Few 2006; Braman 2004; Breese, Ra’el, and Grant 2000; Naser and La Vigne 2006; Naser and Visher 2006; Nelson, Deess, and Allen 1999;…”

“The incarcerationspecific risk index (ISRI) developed for this study was formulated from previous quantitative (e.g., Poehlmann, 2005), and qualitative research (e.g., Arditti & Few, 2006) as well as review articles (e.g., Dallaire, 2007a).”

“…offenders’ needs (e.g., economic marginality, history of abuse, and primary caregiver role) translate to risk factors in women’s behavior in prison (Wright et al., 2012), unmet treatment needs or stressors associated with parenting may also increase women’s risk for relapse (Arditti & Few, 2006).”

“Female offenders are often young, poor mothers who lack education, job skills, or a stable employment history, and whose lives have been characterized by patterns of abuse and addiction (Arditti, 2006 ; Berman, 2005 ; Bloom, Owen, & Covington, 2003 ; Richie, 2001 ).”

“Considering that the majority of prisoners are parents, prison visitation studies have begun to extend empirical inquiry beyond that of the individual prisoner to that of child well-being and family reunification (Arditti & Few, 2006, 2008; Barrick, Lattimore, & Visher, 2014; Brown & Bloom, 2009).”

“…a review, see Van Voorhis, 2012) that includes policies aimed at reducing parental stress and increasing the likelihood of family reunification (Arditti & Few, 2006; Burgess & Flynn, 2013; Celinska & Siegel, 2010; Hoffmann, Byrd, & Kightlinger, 2010; Tasca, Turanovic, White, & Rodriguez, 2014).”

“Prior research has reported that inmates are less likely to receive personal visits when families live greater distances from the prison (Arditti & Few, 2006; Christian, 2005).”

“Over half of the women incarcerated in the United States say they were abused by their parents during childhood and/or by adult relationship partners, including the father(s) of their children (e.g., Arditti & Few, 2006).”

“The limited time allowed in typical visitation can also be upsetting, with many mothers reporting that visits are too short to connect with their children on an emotional level (Arditti & Few, 2006).”

“The majority of incarcerated mothers expect to take responsibility for their minor children once they are released, but rarely do they receive financial or emotional support from their children’s fathers (Arditti and Few, 2006; O’Brien and Young, 2006).”

“They also may have qualitatively different reentry experiences as compared to men (Arditti & Few, 2006; Fader & Traylor, 2015).”

“While a mother is incarcerated, children may be exposed to ineffective parenting if childcare arrangements are unstable (Arditti and Few 2006).”

“As a consequence of the pressures placed on the parent-child relationship during the course of imprisonment, both parties have reported feelings of alienation from each other and difficulties communicating (Nesmith and Ruhland, 2008; Arditti and Few, 2006; Clarke et al, 2005).”

“These factors are present in literatures pertaining to women’s incarceration and recidivism, and they include maternal distress (Arditti & Few, 2006, 2008; Bloom, Owen, & Covington, 2003), substance abuse and addiction (Brownsberger, Love, Doherty, & Shaffer, 2004; Richie, 2003), mental health…”

“Incarcerated women often suffer from multiple stressors which Arditti and Few (2006) refer to as the “triple threat.””

“This has frequently been identified as resulting from hostile relationships between imprisoned parents and carers (Enos, 2001; Gursansky et al., 1998), typically ex-partners (Arditti and Few, 2006; Martin, 1997; Tomaino et al., 2005; Tudball, 2000).”

“However, none of these protective factors can rival the role of family—a particularly vital component for reentry success (Arditti & Few, 2006; Braman, 2004; Naser & La Vigne, 2006; Naser & Visher, 2006; Nelson et al., 1999; Shapiro & Schwartz, 2001; Visher & Courtney, 2007; Western, 2015).”

“…experiences, because incarcerated and Turanovic and Rodriguez 417 criminally involved women are known to suffer various hardships including child abuse, sexual victimization, interpersonal violence, and drug addiction (Arditti & Few, 2006; Daly, 1994; McCartan & Gunnison, 2010; Owen & Bloom, 1995).”

“The child-centered approach used in Australia was seen to be divisive and focused on breaking up families rather than maintaining the family unit at all costs (see Kingi, 2000; Walsh & Douglas, 2009).”

“…document women’s experience post-release and that examine issues around resettlement and reentry (Carlton & Segrave, 2011, 2013, 2014; Berman, 2005; Arditti & Few, 2006; Herrschaft et al., 2009; Cobbina & Bender, 2012; Baldry, 2010; Brown & Ross, 2010; Scroggins & Malley, 2010; Holtfreter &…”

“Building on promising VR treatments for PTSD, researchers are exploring the potential to prevent PTSD by using VR to practice extreme psychological stresses, famously to train US military personnel prior to deployment (Rizzo, 2017).”

“Our sample is unique in that the average age of our participants was 46 years old, whereas the average age of participants in similar works (Arditti & Few, 2006; Dodge & Pogrebin, 2001; Opsal, 2011, 2015) hovers around 35 years old.”

“For parents, particularly those of young children, contending with childcare and ongoing custody issues during their incarceration is a notable challenge [28]; one that continues into reentry.”

“In addition to the negative effects of limited access to the parent and exposure to criminal behavior (Clopton & East, 2008), the arrest or incarceration of a parent often leads to subsequent disruptions in the child’s home environment (Arditti & Few, 2006).”

“…they Crittenden and Koons-Witt 635 do not feel particularly good about their own parenting experiences, and because they are motivated to become better mothers and have plans to reunite with their children and families once they are released from prison (Arditti & Few, 2006; Morash & Schram, 2002).”

“Supportive relationships with family members and romantic partners are important protective factors for individuals with high levels of stressful life events (Arditti & Few, 2006) and play important roles in successful reentry.”

“Mothering work has been shown to be both multi-faceted and institutionally coordinated by institutional ethnographers (Griffith & André-Bechely, 2008; D. Smith & Griffith, 1990) and feminist criminologists (Arditti & Few, 2006; Brown & Bloom, 2009).”

“…frequently worry how a long-term separation from their families impacts the relationships they have with their children (Arditti & Few, 2008) and ultimately how these strained relationships may make reentry more difficult (Arditti & Few, 2006; CooperSadlo et al., 2019; Mignon & Ransford, 2012).”

“Therefore, it is crucial that through-care support/continuity of care is provided, because when women’s needs are negated, they are at greater risk of failure (Arditti and Few 2006; Morozova et al. 2013; Baldwin 2009; Cobbina 2010; Valera et al. 2017; Schram et al. 2006).”

“Supportive family relationships are crucial for helping former inmates successfully navigate the often harsh realities of reentry (Arditti & Few, 2006; Cobbina, 2010; Hairston, 1991; Naser & Visher, 2006), and research has suggested that the maintenance of family ties during and after imprisonment…”

“Nearly 80% of incarcerated women have children for whom they were the primary caregiver at the time of their incarceration, compared to 26% of incarcerated fathers (Arditti & Few, 2006; Glaze & Maruschak, 2008; Greenfeld & Snell, 1999).”

“Furthermore, though several studies link parental incarceration with negative outcomes for youth (Arditti & Few, 2006; Dallaire & Wilson, 2010; Huebner & Gustafson, 2007; Murray & Farrington, 2008; Trice & Brewster, 2004), few recognize that the incarceration of other family members may introduce…”

“…and are rarely in a position to mitigate these negative life events or to change the social conditions that inform them (Bloom & Covington, 2003), thereby compounding the challenges associated with making social, behavioral, and cognitive changes (Arditti & Few, 2006; O’Brien & Young, 2006).”

“…challenge of parenting during incarceration (Adalist-Estrin, 1986; Enos, 2001; Houck & Loper, 2000), the importance of family ties (Adalist-Estrin; Arditti & Few, 2006; Bloom, 1992), and the relationship between motherhood and crime (Ferraro & Moe, 2003), but few comparisons exist of inmates who…”

“Furthermore, some women even regard themselves as not being good mothers (Arditti & Few, 2006) and engage in self-depreciation (Dodge & Pogrebin, 2001).”

“The conditions that often contributed to incarceration including poverty, poor mental health, family violence, and substance abuse have significant influence on reentry and overall success (Arditti & Few, 2006; Few-Demo & Arditti, 2014; Solinas-Saunders & Stacer, 2017).”

“For instance, as needs related to their role as their children’s primary caregivers have rarely been considered in reentry programs, and released mothers often report a high level of maternal stress in reuniting with their children (Arditti & Few, 2006).”

“Contact with loved ones is very important to female inmates (Arditti & Few, 2006; Fogel, 1993; Hairston, 1991; Owen, 1998) and may even serve to reduce female inmates’ deviant behavior (Barrick, Lattimore, & Visher, 2014; Hairston, 1991; Hart, 1995; White, 2012).”

“…may compound rather than improve health and social vulnerabilities, such that upon reentry women continue to struggle with mental health issues, substance use, family violence, and lack of resources, while also working to resume at least some level of care for their children (Arditti & Few, 2006).”

“…mothers face distinctive challenges as they navigate custody arrangements, familial relationships, substance use recovery, and mental health disorders (Arditti & Few, 2006, 2008; Brown & Bloom, 2009; Garcia-Hallett, 2019a; Robison & Hughes Miller, 2016; Sharpe, 2015; Wilson & Koons-Witt, 2021).”

“Many incarcerated mothers have significant parenting challenges and struggle to maintain a relationship with their children and an alliance with their children’s caretakers (Arditti & Few, 2006; Loper & Tuerk, 2011; Travis et al., 2014).”

“Prior research has found that incarceration reduces employment (Pager 2003), educational opportunities (Arditti & Few 2006), and wages (Western 2002), suggesting that incarceration is likely to have direct implications for the level and stability of family income.”

“Having lower levels of resources and decreased social support were associated with higher levels of parental stress (Arditti & Few, 2006).”

“In contrast to parenting decisions aimed at managing CPS involvement, research has suggested that formerly incarcerated mothers may also approach parenthood differently after reentry (Arditti & Few, 2006; Cooper-Sadlo et al., 2019; Garcia, 2016; Michalsen, 2011).”

“…the majority of incarcerated women are mothers who expect to live with their children upon release (Glaze & Maruschak, 2010), it may be that intentions to reunify with children serve as a strong motivator to stay clean during this period (Arditti & Few, 2006, 2008; Sharp & Marcus-Mendoza, 2001).”

“The bulk of this literature emphasizes the prevalence and consequences of maternal incarceration on minor children (Arditti & Few, 2006; Dallaire, 2007; Huebner & Gustafson, 2007; Mumola, 2000; Murray & Farrington, 2005; Poehlmann, 2005).”

“…of studies included depicting the processes—or mechanisms—through which poor health and unemployment intersected and compounded health risks over time (model 3.b, Figure 3) (Arditti and Few 2006, 2008; Brown and Bloom 2009; Luther et al. 2011; Mallik-Kane and Visher 2008; van Olphen et al. 2009).”

“However, community relationship quality—also a significant protective factor in regression models—has been understudied in prior research despite the documented importance of interpersonal relationships for women during the reentry process (Arditti & Few, 2006, 2008; Berg & Huebner, 2011).”

“The lack of social support, most notably through limited family interaction, has been found to be detrimental to incarcerated fathers, impacting the quality of parenting they are able to provide (Arditti & Few, 2006; Windzio, 2006).”

“For incarcerated women, being separated from their children has been considered as the most “difficult” and “damaging” part of incarceration (Arditti & few, 2006, p. 104; Covington & Bloom, 2003).”

“Unfortunately, incarcerated mothers receive fewer visits from their children than incarcerated fathers (Arditti & Few, 2006).”