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Cited by 76Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisCriminal Justice and PenologyFinancial Literacy, Pension, Retirement Analysis

Debt, Incarceration, and Re-entry: a Scoping Review

Open access
Harper, Annie, Ginapp, Callie, Bardelli, Tommaso, Grimshaw, Alyssa, Justen, Marissa, Mohamedali, Alaa, Thomas, Isaiah, Puglisi, Lisa·2021·American Journal of Criminal Justice
DOI 10.1007/s12103-020-09559-9PMC PMC7417202
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Abstract

People involved with the criminal justice system in the United States are disproportionately low-income and indebted. The experience of incarceration intensifies financial hardship, including through worsening debt. Little is known about how people who are incarcerated and their families are impacted by debt and how it affects their reentry experience. We conducted a scoping review to identify what is known about the debt burden on those who have been incarcerated and their families and how this impacts their lives. We searched 14 data bases from 1990 to 2019 for all original research addressing financial debt held by those incarcerated in the United States, and screened articles for relevance and extracted data from pertinent studies. These 31 studies selected for inclusion showed that this population is heavily burdened by debt that was accumulated in three general categories: debt directly from criminal justice involvement such as LFOs, preexisting debt that compounded during incarceration, and debts accrued during reentry for everyday survival. Debt was generally shown to have a negative effect on financial well-being, reentry, family structure, and mental health. Debts from LFOs and child support is very common among the justice-involved population and are largely unpayable. Other forms of debt likely to burden this population remain largely understudied. Extensive reform is necessary to lessen the burden of debt on the criminal justice population in order to improve reentry outcomes and quality of life.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This scoping review maps 31 studies on debt among people who have been incarcerated in the United States and their families, finding that criminal justice debt and child support debt are common, often unpayable, and negatively affect reentry, finances, family relationships, and mental health. The authors conclude that extensive policy reform is needed and that many non-LFO, non-child-support debt types remain understudied.

Key findings

  • Across 31 included studies, the most commonly reported debts were legal financial obligations (LFOs) in 19 studies (55%) and child support in 14 studies (45%); other debt types such as unpaid bills, medical debt, social network debt, predatory lending, and credit access appeared in only 2–4 studies each.
  • LFO debt was widespread: studies found 50–90% of people with LFOs in arrears, except one mixed-methods study finding 20% with LFO and/or child support debt; examples include average total LFO debt of $872 (Link, 2019), mean LFOs charged of $18,937 and mean restitution of $6,166 (Tostlebe, 2017), and Maryland parolees ordered to pay $743 in supervision fees with 90% in arrears at parole completion and 75% of cases sent to collections (Diller et al., 2009).
  • Child support debt was also common: 66–92% of people who had been incarcerated had child support debt, about twice the rate among those with child support orders who had not been incarcerated; one study found a 6% drop in later legitimate employment as child support debt increased (Link & Roman, 2017), while suspending child support orders during incarceration increased compliance by 8% in the first year and 6% in the second year after release (Noyes, 2013).
  • Debt was linked to negative outcomes including damaged credit, housing and employment barriers, family strain, reliance on predatory lenders, and recidivism risk; for example, one large quantitative study found a 42–69 point drop in credit scores and a 15–20% higher likelihood of recidivism associated with lower credit (Aneja & Avenancio-Leon, 2019), and another found people with LFO debt had 22.9 additional months of homelessness (Mogk et al., 2019).

Methods

  • Scoping review following PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews and Levac et al.’s recommendations, guided by two questions: what types of debt people who have been incarcerated have, and what impact that debt has on their lives.
  • Searched 14 databases from 1990 to 2019, with final search on July 8, 2019, yielding 8,327 citations; after removing 1,620 duplicates, 6,708 citations were screened, 456 articles underwent full-text screening, and 31 studies were included.
  • Included primary-data studies on debt accrued by currently or formerly incarcerated people in the United States or their families, including peer-reviewed publications, institutional reports, dissertations, and theses; data were charted via Qualtrics and descriptive statistics performed in Microsoft Excel.

Limitations

  • The paper states that there is no standardized way to report criminal justice involvement or debt, so the search criteria were broad and non-specific and some studies may have been missed.
  • The paper states that debt varies by jurisdiction, making generalization difficult, and that included studies used different approaches and measured debt in different ways, further limiting general conclusions.
  • The paper states that it only considered studies about people who were or had been incarcerated, so the burden on justice-involved people who are not incarcerated, particularly those on probation, is likely also significant but not covered; the text also makes evident that most included research focuses on LFO and child support debt, leaving other debt types largely understudied.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s12103-020-09559-9

Cites

85 of 85 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

11 of 104 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Incarceration contributes to deepening existing social and racial inequalities as people who have been incarcerated and their families face serious financial hardship in the form of housing and food insecurity, unemployment, exclusion from social programs after release, and a decreased ability to build or maintain wealth.

    “Incarceration contributes to deepening existing social and racial inequalities as people who have been incarcerated and their families face serious financial hardship in the form of housing and food insecurity, unemployment, exclusion from social programs after release, and a decreased ability to build or maintain wealth”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Huebner, 2005 source
    • cites Maroto, 2015 source
    • cites Massoglia & Remster, 2019 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingcitation

    People who owe LFO and child support debt borrow from social networks.

    “borrow from social networks (Cook, 2014; Page et al., 2019; Richards & Jones, 1997)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cook, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Page et al., 2019 source

      In the passage beginning “Against this backdrop of limited resources” (page not provided), the paper says family members, partners, and close friends cosign defendants’ bail bonds and pay bail premiums. This supports the broader point that people draw on social networks for criminal-justice payments, but it does not show people borrowing from those networks to pay LFO or child support debt. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Richards & Jones, 1997 source
  • Findingcitation

    People who owe LFO and child support debt also have unpaid bills.

    “People who owe LFO and child support debt also have unpaid bills”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cook, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Page et al., 2019 source

      The passages on legal financial obligations and low-income defendants discuss fines, fees, and limited resources, but do not say that people owing LFO and child-support debt also have unpaid bills. Searches for “child support” and “unpaid bills” found no passage establishing that combination. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Richards & Jones, 1997 source
  • Findingcitation

    Debt from LFOs, including bail, results in individuals and their families - particularly female family members - borrowing from costly, predatory lenders.

    “Debt from LFOs, including bail, results in individuals and their families – particularly female family members - borrowing from costly, predatory lenders (Cook, 2014; Page et al., 2019)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cook, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Page et al., 2019 source

      In “Bail as a Site of Interdependence and Extraction” (page unavailable), the paper says defendants unable to afford bail turn to bail companies, which charge premiums through contracts often signed by family members. “Caring Obligations and Emotional Labor” (page unavailable) identifies women as the most frequent cosigners and describes costly, predatory bail terms. The paper does not establish that debt from LFOs generally leads families to borrow from separate predatory lenders. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingcitation

    People who owe LFO debts face difficulties finding housing.

    “face difficulties finding housing (Harris et al., 2010; Mogk, Shmigol, Futrell, Stover, & Hagopian, 2019)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Harris et al., 2010 source
    • cites Mogk, Shmigol, Futrell, Stover, & Hagopian, 2019 source

      The Results (Respondent characteristics as predictors of duration of homelessness) associate outstanding LFOs with a longer current episode of homelessness among surveyed people in Seattle. That supports a link to housing instability, but the paper does not establish that LFO debt itself makes finding housing difficult; its separate finding about difficulty finding permanent housing concerns arrest history (Results, Incarceration and LFO history). (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 19
  • May combine two claims. 31
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The review used the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews and Levac et al's recommendations for scoping review methodology to guide the methodology.

    “We use the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews and Levac et al’s recommendations for scoping review methodology (Levac, Colquhoun, & O’Brien, 2010; Tricco et al., 2018) to guide the methodology for the review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Levac, Colquhoun, & O’Brien, 2010 source
    • cites Tricco et al., 2018 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The financial burden created by LFOs affects both individuals returning from incarceration and their family members, and makes community re-integration more difficult.

    “Nonetheless, it is clear that the financial burden created by LFOs that affects both individuals returning from incarceration and their family members, makes community re-integration more difficult.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Eisen, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Evans, 2014

      The Effects of Criminal Debt section says debt interferes with former offenders’ successful reintegration. The Child Support section describes consequences for children when parents cannot pay, but our copy does not establish the broader claim that the burden of LFOs affects family members generally. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Harris, 2016

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    LFO debt may cause recidivism due to illegal activity or incarceration due to non-payment.

    “Various studies using different methods found that LFO debt may cause recidivism due to illegal activity or incarceration due to non-payment”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cook, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ortiz, 2010

      The “Paying Debts” section says criminal-justice fines and fees were the women’s biggest debt challenge, that debts could contribute to recidivism, and that some women contemplated voluntarily serving jail time to pay them off. It does not clearly say that LFO debt led them to commit illegal acts or that they were incarcerated involuntarily for non-payment; those mechanisms are more specific than the account supports. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Ortiz & Jackey, 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Debt was generally shown to have a negative effect on financial well-being, reentry, family structure, and mental health.

    “Debt was generally shown to have a negative effect on financial well-being, reentry, family structure, and mental health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Debts from LFOs and child support are very common among the justice-involved population and are largely unpayable.

    “Debts from LFOs and child support is very common among the justice-involved population and are largely unpayable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Having low income and being non-white is associated with higher levels of child support debt.

    “Having low income and being non-white is associated with higher levels of child support debt (McLeod & Gottlieb, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McLeod & Gottlieb, 2018 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Poor employment outcomes are associated with worse health.

    “poor employment outcomes are associated with worse health (Link & Roman, 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Link & Roman, 2017 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The drop in credit scores impacts access to housing, employment and financial products.

    “which impacts access to housing, employment and financial products”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Aneja & Avenancio-Leon, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    A large quantitative study found that those who cannot afford bail face a 41% increase in court fees, which may result in increased court fee debt.

    “a large quantitative study found that those who cannot afford bail face a 41% increase in court fees which may result in increased court fee debt (Stevenson, 2018)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stevenson, 2018 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    People who owe LFO debts rely on social networks for financial support, which causes family strain.

    “Mixed and qualitative studies explore how people who owe LFO debts rely on social networks for financial support which causes family strain (Cook, 2014; Johnson, 2015; Nagrecha et al., 2015; Pleggenkuhle, 2012; Pogrebin, West-Smith, Walker, & Unnithan, 2014)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cook, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Johnson, 2015 source
    • cites Nagrecha et al., 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Debt from LFOs, including bail, results in cutting back on essentials and falling behind on bills.

    “cutting back on essentials and falling behind on bills (Cook, 2014; Harris et al., 2010; Richards & Jones, 1997)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cook, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Harris et al., 2010 source
    • cites Richards & Jones, 1997 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Child support debt results in wage garnishing and loss of tax refunds.

    “Child support debt also results in wage garnishing and loss of tax refunds (Haney, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haney, 2018 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    People who owe LFO debts are discouraged from entering the formal economy or are forced to work low-wage jobs and forgo career-enhancing training/education.

    “are discouraged from entering formal economy or are forced to work low-wage jobs and forgo career-enhancing training/education (Harris et al., 2010; Ortiz & Jackey, 2019; Pleggenkuhle, 2018)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Harris et al., 2010 source
    • cites Ortiz & Jackey, 2019 source
    • cites Pleggenkuhle, 2018 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    People who owe LFO and child support debt have damaged credit which limits access to affordable, asset-building loans and increases use of predatory lenders.

    “have damaged credit which limits access to affordable, asset-building loans and increases use of predatory lenders”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Diller et al., 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Glidden & Brown, 2017 source
    • cites Harris, 2016

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Child support debt can lead to reliance on social networks, particularly family, for financial support, which causes relationship strain and economic hardship.

    “reliance on social networks, particularly family, for financial support, which causes relationship strain and economic hardship (Haney, 2018; Nagrecha et al., 2015; Pogrebin et al., 2014)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Haney, 2018 source
    • cites Nagrecha et al., 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Pogrebin et al., 2014 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The studies used a range of different approaches, measuring debt in different ways.

    “Also, the studies used a range of different approaches, measuring debt in different ways, adding to the difficulty of drawing general conclusions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    As they struggle to pay their LFOs, their family networks are also burdened, which causes tension in relationships.

    “their family networks are also burdened, which causes tension in relationships.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    There is no standardized way to report on criminal justice involvement or debt.

    “Because there is no standardized way to report on criminal justice involvement or debt, the search criteria was broad and non-specific.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Regarding non-LFO debt, most studies focus on child support debt, which, similar to LFO debt, can hinder efforts to find employment and rebuild financial security and social networks.

    “Regarding non-LFO debt, most studies focus on child support debt, which, similar to LFO debt, can hinder efforts to find employment and rebuild financial security and social networks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Other forms of debt likely to burden people who have been incarcerated remain largely understudied.

    “Other forms of debt likely to burden this population remain largely understudied.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Most of the studies in this review examine LFO debt and find that the majority of people who are assessed LFOs fall into arrears on those obligations.

    “Most of the studies in this review examine LFO debt and find that the majority of people who are assessed LFOs fall into arrears on those obligations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Most research to date on the debt of people who have been incarcerated focuses on LFO-related debt; the only non-LFO debt that is well-studied is child support.

    “Most research to date on the debt of people who have been incarcerated focuses on LFO-related debt; the only non-LFO debt that is well-studied is child support.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Other types of non-LFO debt include bills and fines owed prior to incarceration that go unpaid, including utility and medical bills and traffic fines, debts incurred to friends and family related to the costs of arrest, incarceration and post-release demands, and debts arising from predatory loans taken post-release.

    “Other types of non-LFO debt include bills and fines owed prior to incarceration that go unpaid, including utility and medical bills and traffic fines, debts incurred to friends and family related to the costs of arrest, incarceration and post-release demands, and debts arising from predatory loans taken post-release.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    The debt that people who have been incarcerated have varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.

    “Another limitation of this scoping review was the fact that the debt that people who have been incarcerated have varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, making it difficult to generalize across studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Access to credit indicates both existing debt problems and future possible debt, as people with bad credit have to rely on more costly debt types.

    “Access to credit indicates both existing debt problems (unpaid debts lower credit scores which lowers credit access) and future possible debt, as people with bad credit have to rely on more costly debt types”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Study screening was performed in a two-staged process using a team of four reviewers, with each study independently reviewed by two reviewers and discrepancies resolved by a third reviewer in the first stage.

    “We performed all study screening on Covidence, in a two-staged process using a team of four reviewers. During the first stage, we reviewed the titles and abstracts of all 6708 studies to assess them for meeting inclusion and exclusion criteria; the work was divided such that each study was independently reviewed by two reviewers, and any discrepancies were resolved by a third reviewer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People involved with the criminal justice system in the United States are disproportionately low-income and indebted.

    “People involved with the criminal justice system in the United States are disproportionately low-income and indebted.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Atkinson, 2019
    • cites Zinman, 2015 source
    • cites Pettit & Western, 2004 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The review endeavored to report only on actual debt (payments fallen behind).

    “We endeavored to report only on the latter.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    LFO debts can cause long term debt and damaged credit.

    “LFO debts can cause long term debt and damaged credit (Harris et al., 2010; Pleggenkuhle, 2018)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Harris et al., 2010 source
    • cites Pleggenkuhle, 2018 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Programs that help people find employment after release are helpful, though time must be provided for career-building training and education.

    “Programs that help people find employment after release are helpful, though time must be provided for career-building training and education (Link & Roman, 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Link & Roman, 2017 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Black people have only 10% and Latinx people only 12% of the wealth of white people.

    “Black people have only 10% and Latinx people only 12% of the wealth of white people (Hamilton, Nieves, Markoff, & Newville, 2020)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hamilton, Nieves, Markoff, & Newville, 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    This scoping review only considered studies about people who were or had been incarcerated.

    “Finally, we only considered studies about people who were or had been incarcerated; the burden of LFO and non-LFO debt on those involved in the criminal justice system who are not actually incarcerated, particularly those on probation, is also likely to be significant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Women may face legal costs associated with regaining custody of children.

    “may face legal costs associated with regaining custody of children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Financial literacy education may be helpful, as well as changes to banking practice and policies.

    “Financial literacy education may be helpful, as well as changes to banking practice and policies (Koenig, 2007; Mielitz, Clady, Lurtz, & Archuleta, 2019; Mielitz & Marcum, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Koenig, 2007
    • cites Mielitz, Clady, Lurtz, & Archuleta, 2019 source
    • cites Mielitz & Marcum, 2020 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The search criteria for this scoping review was broad and non-specific.

    “Because there is no standardized way to report on criminal justice involvement or debt, the search criteria was broad and non-specific.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People of color are more likely to be burdened by medical or predatory debt, and to be in default on other types of debt.

    “are more likely to be burdened by medical or predatory debt, and to be in default on other types of debt (Charron-Chénier & Seamster, 2020; Seamster, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Charron-Chénier & Seamster, 2020 source
    • cites Seamster, 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Women may be uniquely impacted by this web of debt related to incarceration, both women who provide financial support to their loved ones in prison or after release, and those who have been incarcerated.

    “Women may be uniquely impacted by this web of debt related to incarceration, both women who provide financial support to their loved ones in prison or after release, and those who have been incarcerated”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    People become entangled in a web of overlapping debts, taking new debt to pay off older debts, including LFO debt, relying on social networks where possible, or resorting to costly, predatory debt given damaged credit.

    “People become entangled in a web of overlapping debts, taking new debt to pay off older debts, including LFO debt, relying on social networks where possible, or resorting to costly, predatory debt given damaged credit.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Differences between policies in different jurisdictions, and different approaches to the research, make it difficult to draw generalized conclusions.

    “Differences between policies in different jurisdictions, and different approaches to the research, make it difficult to draw generalized conclusions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Some studies may have been missed in the search.

    “It is possible that some studies were missed in the search.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    LFOs contribute to a cycle of indebtedness, constrained decisions and stress.

    “LFOs contribute to a cycle of indebtedness, constrained decisions and stress”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Women are more likely to be behind on other types of debt and have worse credit scores.

    “are more likely to be behind on other types of debt and have worse credit scores (Geng, 2018; Mottola, 2013)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Geng, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mottola, 2013 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The burden of LFO and non-LFO debt on those involved in the criminal justice system who are not actually incarcerated, particularly those on probation, is likely to be significant.

    “Finally, we only considered studies about people who were or had been incarcerated; the burden of LFO and non-LFO debt on those involved in the criminal justice system who are not actually incarcerated, particularly those on probation, is also likely to be significant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
43 of 43

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little is known about how people who are incarcerated and their families are impacted by debt and how it affects their reentry experience.

    “Little is known about how people who are incarcerated and their families are impacted by debt and how it affects their reentry experience.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Debt may play a significant role in contributing to the financial hardship experienced by people who have been incarcerated.

    “Debt may play a significant role in contributing to the financial hardship experienced by people who have been incarcerated.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The extent of mass incarceration and lack of support systems available to the poor in the United States prevent generalization of data from other countries.

    “We excluded studies not written in English and studies where the study population was incarcerated outside of the United States, as the extent of mass incarceration and lack of support systems available to the poor in the United States prevent generalization of data from other countries.”
3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • LFO study percentage is miscalculated

    Minor

    Table 2 reports that 19 of 31 studies measured LFOs, which is about 61%, not 55%.

    Reported 55 · recomputed 61.290323

  • Total-debt study count conflicts with Table 2

    Minor

    The text says total debt was reported in two to three studies, whereas Table 2 lists four.

  • Credit-score decline is described in incompatible units

    Minor

    The results describe the credit-score decline as 69%, while Table 3 reports a decline of 42-69 points. A point decline is not the same measure as a percentage decline.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Alpert, D., & Hockett, R. (2018, June 9). The Debt Goes On: A Post-Crisis “Progress” Report. Center for Household Financial Stability & Private Debt Project “Tipping Points” Symposium. http://www.privatedebtproject.org/cmsb/uploads/alpert_hockett_postcrisis_progress_report.pdf
  2. Boshara, R. (2016). Executive Summary. Center for Household Financial Stability & Private Debt Project “Tipping Points” Symposium. http://www.privatedebtproject.org/cmsb/uploads/tippingpointsexecutivesummary.pdf
  3. Gunnison, E. (2017). Community corrections. Carolina Academic Press.
  4. Lewandoski, M. (2010). Barred from Bankruptcy: Recently Incarcerated Debtors in and outside Bankruptcy. NYU Review of Law and Social Change, 34(1). https://socialchangenyu.com/review/barred-from-bankruptcy-recently-incarcerated-debtors-in-and-outside-bankruptcy/.
  5. McKernan, P. (2019). Wanted on Warrants: The Impact of Legal Financial Obligations on Prisoner Reentry and Recommendations for Reform. Journal of Community Corrections, 28(3). https://www.civicresearchinstitute.com/online/article_abstract.php?pid=9&aid=9063&iid=1388.
  6. Smoyer, A., Blankenship, K. M., & Macintosh, T. (2009). Parenting on Parole or Probation. In The Myth of the Missing Black Father (pp. 299–326). Columbia University Press.
  7. Stack, C. B. (1983). All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (27th Printing edition). Basic Books.
  8. Vallas, R., & Patel, R. (2012). Sentenced to a Life of Criminal Debt—A Barrier to Reentry and Climbing out of Poverty. Clearinghouse Review, 46, 131–141.

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Authors
Harper, A., Ginapp, C., Bardelli, T., Grimshaw, A., Justen, M., Mohamedali, A., Thomas, I., & Puglisi, L.
Affiliations
  • Yale University (US)
  • New York University (US)
  • Veterans Health Administration (US)
Corresponding author
Harper, Annie
ORCID
Venue
American Journal of Criminal Justice
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2020-08-11
Volume
46
Issue
2
Pages
250-278
ISSN
  • 1066-2316 (ISSN-L)
  • 1936-1351
DOI
10.1007/s12103-020-09559-9
PMC
PMC7417202
OpenAlex
W3048620170
Semantic Scholar
a1dbe5bb004d5654ba454756e370d76f5661dc92
Cited by
76
References
85
Citations by year
2026: 10 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 10
FWCI
1.14
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • American Journal of Criminal Justice (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (UL1TR001863)
  • National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
  • Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Accounting › Financial Literacy, Pension, Retirement Analysis
Keywords
debt, incarceration, prisoner reentry, financial hardship, low-income adults, financial well-being, child support, mental health, family structure

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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